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A
HISTORY
OF
liAND-AADE
Lace.
r 9 o-f
Portrait of a Lady, painted by Ravesteyn (1580-1665). Taken from a photograph by Hanfstaenjjl. The ruff is trimmed with the elaborate Guipure Point Qotico of the period.
itfiiiMiit£iiii^
UlM.t'L't.t^'tfJ^it.LLCJVJiklWW
1^
A HISTORY OF
/
HAND-MADE LACE.
DEALING WITH THE ORIGIN OF LACE, THE GROWTH OF THE
GREAT LACE CENTRES, THE MODE OF MANUFACTURE, THE
METHODS OF DISTINGUISHING AND THE CARE
OF VARIOUS KINDS OF LACE.
Mrs. F. NEVILL JACKSON,
WITH SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION BY
ERNESTO JESURUM.
ILLUSTRATED
WITH 19 PLATES, AND OVER 200 ENGRAVINGS OF LACE AND THE FASHION OF WEARING IT AS SHOWN IN CONTEMPORARY PORTRAITS.
^rHso/\/^-
APR 2 0 1904
t^BRAR
LONDON : L. UPCOTT GILL, 170, STRAND, W.C. NEW YORK: CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, 153-157, FIFTH AVENUE.
I goo.
"There is still some distinction between Maohine-made and Hand-made Lace. I will suppose that distinction so par done away with that, a
PATTERN ONCE INVENTED, TOU CAN SPIN LACE AS FAST AS THEY NOW DO THREAD.
Everybody then might wear not only Lace collars, but Lace gowns. do you think that, when everybody could wear them, everybody
would BE PROUD OE WEARING THEM .' A SPIDER MAY PERHAPS BE RATIONALLY PROUD OF HIS OWN COBWEB, EVEN THOUGH ALL THE FIELDS IN THE MORNING ARE COVERED WITH THE LIKE, FOR HE MADE IT HIMSELF ; BUT SUPPOSE A MACHINE SPUN IT FOR HIM ? SUPPOSE ALL THE GOSSAMER WERE NOTTINGHAM MADE ? If YOU THINK OE IT, YOU WILL FIND THE WHOLE VALUE OF LaCE AS A POSSESSION DEPENDS ON THE FACT OF ITS HAVING A BEAUTY WHICH HAS BEEN THE REWARD OF INDUSTRY AND ATTENTION. THAT THE THING IS ITSELF A PRICE — ^A THING EVERYBODY CANNOT
HAVE. That it proves, by the look of it, the ability of the maker ; that it
PROVES, by the rarity OF IT, THE DIGNITY OF ITS WEARER — EITHER THAT SHE HAS BEEN SO INDUSTRIOUS AS TO SAVE MONEY, WHICH CAN BUY, SAY, A PIECE OP JEWELLERY, OF GOLD TISSUE, OR OF PINE LaCE — OR ELSE THAT SHE IS A NOBLE PERSON, TO WHOM HER NEIGHBOURS CONCEDE AS AN HONOUR THE PRIVILEGE OP WEARING FINER DRESS THAN THEY. If THEY ALL CHOOSE TO HAVE LaCE TOO — IP IT CEASES TO BE A PRICE, IT BECOMES, DOES IT NOT, ONLY A COBWEB ? ThE REAL GOOD OP A PIECE OP LaCE, THEN, YOU WILL PIND, IS THAT IT SHOULD SHOW FIRST, THAT THE DESIGNER OF IT HAD A PRETTY FANCY ; NEXT, THAT THE MAKER OF IT HAD FINE FINGERS ; LASTLY, THAT THE WEARER OP IT HAS WORTHINESS OR DIGNITY ENOUGH TO OBTAIN WHAT IT IS DIFFICULT TO OBTAIN, AND COMMON SENSE ENOUGH NOT TO WEAR IT ON ALL OCCASIONS. "
EUSKIN.
e»»i.^.^i.Ka...««::,,.i^.n»nai^;.gsisa!^
Dedicated By Special Permission
TO
Ber Ropai Biabncss princess Cbristian,
Whose Fellow-Feeling with Women Workers
Has Always Shown Itself
In Her Kindly Interest and Tender Sympathy
With Women's Work,
Whether of Brain or Hand.
I
' imMmmm
iHiSr
PREFACE.
I
THE special object in writing this History of Hand-made Lace has been to sift and condense all available information in order to classify antique and modern lace specimens with regard to their origin, period, and mode of manufacture, as well as to trace the History of the rise and growth of the great lace centres.
For a complete list of Works on Lace-making we must refer to our chapter on the Literature of Lace ; we are specially indebted to Mrs. Bury Palliser's "History of Lace"; "The Lace Catalogue" of South Kensington Museum, revised by Alan S. Cole ; Lady Layard's translation of " The Technical History of Venetian and Burano Laces " ; and Felkin's " Machine- wrought Lace."
Our thanks are due to Signor Giuseppe A.ldo Randegger for the " Ballade a Toile," written expressly for this work. In order to preserve to posterity the almost extinct song of the lace-makers, which had its origin in the ateliers of the sixteenth century, he visited Venice, where a few of the old workers still retain the once universal custom of singing appropriate songs as they ply the needle or twist the bobbins, and, after listening to the harmonies, he set the graceful words of Signor Eugenie Randegger to music. We wish to express our thanks to Signor Ernesto Jesurum for much valuable information regarding the hand-made laces of the present day, and for placing at our disposal a large number of specimens of antique lace, which rendered our systematic pictorial classification possible ; also to the Council of the South Kensington Museum, and to Mr. A. F. Kendrick personally, together with Mr. Alfred Whitman, of the Print Department at the British Museum, for their courtesy and assistance,
EMILY JACKSON. July, 1900.
\k
LIST OF PLATES.
Portrait of a Lady, Painted by Ravesteyn (1580-1665) Frontispiece
Portrait of Queen Elizabeth, in Ruff Trimmed with the Most
Elaborate Thread Guipure of the Period ... ... facing page 12
Bobbin-made Brussels Lace Flounce; Late Seventeenth Century ... 23 Point de France, Showing the Venetian Influence; Seventeenth
Century ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 32
Portrait of Mademoiselle de Beaujolas, by Nattier (1685-1766) ... 37 Portrait of Queen Victoria, Taken at the Time of Her Majesty's
Jubilee, 1887 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 46
Irish Needle-point Lace Head-dress with Lappets ; Nineteenth
Century ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 54
Portrait of Pope Clement XIII. Rezzonicus (1693-1769), showing
Point de Burano Lace Worn on Dress .. ... ... ... 56
Fan-leaf of Needle-point Lace Made for H.R.H. Princess Maud of
Wales on the Occasion of Her Marriage in 1896 ... ... 63
Fan-leaf of White Needle-point Lace (Point d'Alenqon) ; Nineteenth
Century; Belonging to the Empress Eugenie ... ... ... 66
Portrait of Marie Antoinette (1755-1793) ... ... ... ... ... 76
Lace-trimmed Christening Suits in Use Until the Close of the
Eighteenth Century ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 82
Lappet of Needle-point Lace (Point d'Alen90n) ; Eighteenth Century 108 Lappet of Belgian Bobbin Lace; Eighteenth Century ... ... ... 118
Wedding Veil of Bobbin made Brussels (Belgian) Lace ; Eighteenth
Century ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 128
X LIST OF PLATES.
Panel for Linen Chair-back of Cut Linen and Embroidery. Irish;
Nineteenth Century facing page 140
Portrait of Mme. G. den Dubbelde, by B. van der Helst
(i) Lappet of Mechlin Bobbin Lace ; Eighteenth Century. (2) Lappet
(one of a Pair) of Valenciennes Bobbin Lace; Eighteenth
Century Linen Collar, with Border and Broad Ends of Needle-point
Venetian Lace (Gros Point de Venise, Punto Tagliato a
FOLIAMi)
155
i«i
204
I
BBBH
CONTENTS.
li
CHAP.
I. The Evolution of Lace ... II. Anecdotal History of Mediaeval Lace
III. Anecdotal History of Lace in the Seventeenth Century
IV. Anecdotal History of Lace in the Eighteenth Century V. Anecdotal History of Lace in the Nineteenth Century
VI. Ecclesiastical Lace VII. Lace Fans Vni. Peasant Laces
IX. The Transport of Lace
X. The Care of Lace ... XI. The Literature of Lace A Dictionary of Lace Glossary Relating to Hand-made Lace Index ...
page I
12 23
37 46
56
63 69 76 82
94 107
207
221
i
i.f:i!«iRiit«HPi«H»waat!s«»»)»w*«iM^
»!3ssi''^'j?s8«g:^^
A HISTORY
OF
HAND. MADE LACE.
•mSHM^MmVmM-tJ't I 111 If
■ L'Industria," from a painting- by Paul Veronese, in the Dog-e's Palace, Venice. Taken from
a Photograph by Anderson, Eome.
F
O
high value can
The work
cares need not
the work itself
CHAPTER I.
THE EVOLUTION OF LACE.
all the industries there is perhaps none so valuable as that of lace-making, for the cost of tools and working materials is so trifling that the profit is derived almost entirely from the manual labour expended upon it, and the scope for artistic feeling and individuality in the taste of the worker is so great that a very be obtained by the humblest operator.
is not beyond the strength of the most delicate woman ; family be neglected, for the lace-maker can work at home ; and lastly, necessitates perfect hygienic conditions and personal cleanliness.
2 HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
On the charm of lace, as beauty's aid, it is hardly necessary to dwell : all acknowledge the graceful and softening effect of filmy ruffles and delicate webs of flax thread. Never does an old lady look so charming as when she drapes her head and shoulders with old lace, and never are the charms of youth and beauty so apparent as when enhanced with lace.
Specimen of Ancient Network, the forerunner of the Lace Ground of the present day. From a Roman Cemetery in Middle Egypt.
It is the one costly wear which never vulgarises ; jewels worn without judgment can be rendered offensive to good taste in their too apparent glitter, but lace in its comparatively quiet richness never obtrudes itself and is recognised in its true worth and beauty only by those whose superior taste has trained them to see its value. The
N
T^mmHRBH
EVOLUTION OF LACE.
distinction between the two costliest adornments which have ever been produced is a subtle one, and the wearer of artistic hand-made lace is marked as a woman of taste which raises her above the ordinary level, in refinement of judgment, all the world over.
Lace has been defined as the name generally applied to ornamented open-work of threads of flax, cotton, silk, gold or silver, and occasionally of hair or aloe fibre. Such threads may be either looped, plaited or twisted together in one of three ways : —
(i). With a needle, when the work is distinctively
known as Needle Point Lace. (2). With bobbins, when the work is known as Bobbin Lace, though sometimes inaccu- rately described as Pillow Lace. Needle- point, Bobbin, and Knotted Laces, such as Macrame, are all supported in the hands of the worker on a pillow, so that the term Pillow Lace conveys no distinctive mean- ing and should never be used except as a general term. (3). By machinery, when imitations of both Needle- point and Bobbin Lace patterns are pro- duced. The difficulty of tracing the history of lace is vastly increased by the fragility of the specimens. In public and private collections of pictures, sculpture, or pottery, a continuity of the story is possible by means of the examples left intact by the ravages of time ; but with lace the delicate gold, silver, and flax threads are so perishable that only very few examples remain to show what special mode was employed in the handicraft at this or that period. Pictorial art is a rich source of infor- mation when that point is arrived at in the history of lace when portraits show the variety and style of wear- ing the fabric. Sculpture also lends its aid in the same way.
Some authors have stated that lace originated in the where were far East ; but if this be the case it is strange that in those the earliest lands where the trades and customs are so conservative l^adeV* ^^" that one may see made to-day what was made centuries ago, from the same designs and by identical methods, lace should be conspicuous by its absence. There is little ^"'"'rwlstecf Threiuls'^from "^*^^^ industry of lace-making in China, perhaps the most an Ancient Tomb at conservative of all countries, and only the scantiest trace Upl^^EgyX ^'''^''' °^ "" P'^^* ^^""^ industry. Lace now made by the Celestial
B 2
I
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Homer mentions nets of gold.
The lozenge pattern is the most ancient.
4 HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
has been taught in modern mission schools, and is an imita- tion of the Maltese varieties ; in Japan it is the same. In Persia no lace is made, though open work in drawn thread work is occasionally to be met with. At Tinnevelli and Travancore, in India, lace is made at the mission schools, but there is no special native industry.
Why, if the Orientals originated lace, should they cease to make it when Europe began ? And why, moreover, should so few traces of the old industry remain where centuries roll by without affecting other trades ? The arguments for the theory of the origin of lace in the far East are, we think, inadequate. It is in the West, in those countries contigu- ous to Europe, in Asia Minor, that the earliest forms of lace work were made.
The references in ancient manuscripts to lace or net- work are frequently confounded with embroidery, possibly because the two kinds of needlework were so often used together, and translators from the primitive languages, Chaldaic, Hebrew, and Arabic, did not differentiate between the two distinct varieties of needlework : embroidery, and network or lace.
In the paintings on ancient Egyptian sarcophagi, we see figures weaving garments of fine network, such as are described in Isaiah : " They that work in fine flax and they that weave networks " (xix. g). The robes of state of royal personages in such pictures appear to be of network darned round the hem in gold, silver, and coloured silks.
Examples of elaborate netting have been found in Egyptian and Grseco- Roman tombs, and mummy wrappings are ornamented with drawn work, cut work, and other open ornamentation.
Homer mentions veils of net woven of gold. Such expressions cannot possibly be considered as referring to embroidery. Reference to them seems to estabhsh two points : — First, that network of fine linen interwoven or embroidered with gold, whether for the ornamenting of wear- ing apparel or the enrichment of hangings (just as we find darned network used for curtains in the present day) were made use of from Biblical times ; secondly, that lace derived its origin from netting, and not, as many imagine, from embroidery.
On the opening of a Scandinavian barrow near Ware- ham, in Dorsetshire, a small piece of gold lace was brought to light. It was of course much decayed. Its old lozenge design, however, could be distinguished. This pattern, which is the most ancient and universal, has also been found
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A Tape or Braid of Twisted Threads, from a Tomb at Akhmen, Panopo- lis, Upper Egrypt.
EVOLUTION OF LACE.
Saracenic Drawn Linen Work, the earliest form of Open Work Ornamentation. From a Tomb in Egypt, tenth or eleventh century B.C.
depicted on pottery as trimming
ttie coats of the ancient Danes.
The borders of the coat are
edged with a network pattern of
the same design ; possibly ihe
knowledge of the handicraft of
gold lace making had been
brought to Scandinavia by some
captive women torn from their
Southern homes by the Vikings,
for it was by such means that
nations so far removed from the
centres of civilization were often
taught.
A fine example of antique gold lace was discovered in the cofHn of St. The distinc-
Cuthbert in Durham Cathedral. The Saint had lieen buried in his cope and *'°" between
maniple, which were very beautifully embroidered ; on one side of the maniple embroidery.
the gold lace was stitched and showed quite separate from the material which it
ornamented, hut on which it had not hem originally ivorked as embroidery.
The Circassian and Armenian women have from the earliest times adorned the
fronts and necks of their underlinen, the skirts of their dresses, and the veils which
are worn on the head, with a net interwoven with threads of gold, silver, or of
silk.
The Arabs also excelled in such work, and the commerce which was formerly
carried on between Italy and Arabia is a matter of history ; we are therefore justified
in conjecturing that the Italian word ricamo, which signifies embroidery, is no
other than the old Arabic word rahuna, and that the other Italian word trine, or
lace, represents the Arabic word targe ihe evident deduction being that the Arabs
distinguished between the two species of needlework, embroidery and lace, and gave
to each its distinctive appellation.
In documents of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries the word " fimboice "
is used in writing of fringe and lace, and the addition of" in gold," '• in silver," or " in network " is frequently met with ; if it had been in- tended to speak of embroidery proper it is obvious that, at least sometimes, mention of the material, or the colour of the mate- rial, on which the
Drawn Linen Work with Arabic inscription, from a Tomb in Upper Eg-ypt.
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE
Cut linen ■was an early form of lace work.
embroidery was worked would have been made, as embroidery in gold, on linen, on purple, silk, or some other variety.
Anglo-Saxon gentle- women were extremely clever in embroidery and its kindred ornamentations, and many accounts are extant of richly embroi- dered tunics and sarks worked by the nuns, whose lives of seclusion gave them ample opportunity for the execution of intricate needlework.
In tracing the evolu- tion of lace, mention must be made of other early forms besides that of darned network and veils. The most important of these was the cut work, which was extensively used in the sixteenth century, and is known to have existed at a much earlier period. The commonest use made of this form of needlework was for the ornamentation of shirts and smocks.
"These shirtes," writes Philip Stubbs in 1583, in the ' Anatomie of Abuses,' " are wrought throughout with needlework of silke, and such like, and curiously stitched with open seame, and many other knacks besides, more than I can describe, in so much, I have heard of shirtes that have cost some ten shil- lynges, some twenty, some
p.
p. p. P _c
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EVOLUTION OF LACE.
Band of Galloon in coloured silk and g-old thread, forenmner of the Gold Lace of the present day. From an ancient Tomb at Akhmen, Panopolis, Upper Egypt.
forty, some five pounds, some twenty nobles, and (which is horrible to heare)
some ten pound apece."
At first cut-work was used only for ecclesiastical purposes ; and until the
dissolution of the monasteries, the art of making it was looked upon as a secret
belonging to the Church. The Church dignitaries did not consider it derogatory to
design patterns, the great St. Dunstan himself executing several.
The transition from lace of gold, silver and silken threads to that of flax was
very simple.
In the works of Dante and others we read that the early simplicity of dress
had given way to extravagance and luxury, and many rich people impoverished
themselves by purchasing scarves, sashes, mantles, coverlets, cushions of gold
brocade embroidered with pearls and other gems, and veils and trimmings of
lace made with spun gold, of immoderate richness. In the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries gold thread was subject to heavy duties and severe Sumptuary
regulations, so much so, that about the year 1460 the lace-workers, finding the
demand for their work so much diminished that the production of gold and silver
lace was no longer profitable at home, many of them emigrated, taking their
industry to other countries ; others continued their work in Italy, substituting
flax threads for the costly gold
and silver.
It is beyond doubt that
the designs of the laces made
with spun gold were towards
the end of the sixteenth
century reproduced in linen
thread, and it is no wonder
that when the increased
facility in working with flax
was discovered, and beautiful
and ingenious stitches were
introduced, the lighter and
cheaper material eventually
remained master of the field.
The Sumptuary laws have
in every lace-making country
had such an important influ-
Example of Saracenic Drawn Linen, the earliest form ence on the evolution and
of Open Work Ornamentation. From a Tomb in , ,
Egypt, tenth or eleventh century B.C. development OI lace, that it
The transi- tion from gold and silver lace to that of flax thread.
Sumptuary- laws have hindered the lace-making industry.
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Portion of a Linen Garment, ornamented with Drawn Work, over-sewn and embroidered with Kufio inscriptions. Sara- cenic, ninth or tenth century B.C.
is impossible to sketch the history of lace without first taking a cursory glance at some of the edicts which in all ages have retarded, hampered, and occasionally threatened to altogether extinguish the lace-making industry.
In France the first Sumptuary law is dated 608. It was made by Charles the Great for the regulation of high-priced cloth used for the dress of the period. Unlike many of his predecessors, the King himself showed an example of extreme simplicity while endeavouring to restrain luxury in others.
Louis le Debonnaire, Philip Augustus, and Louis VIII., also tried to restrain by edict the luxury which increased with the development of the industries. Philip
Christian Coptic example of Drawn Linen, the flax warps forming a lace-like ground for needlework stitches. Sixth century.
I
EVOLUTION OF LACE.
Augustus made himself ridiculous by the exactness of his orders. He not only legislated with regard to dress but also to attendants, and even the number of the dishes to be served at table.
" No burgess," says this unconscious humourist, "must have a carriage, nor be dressed in green nor grey, nor must he wear ermine. No burgess must wear gold nor precious stones, neither gold nor silver crowns. No lady, if not a lady of the Manor, must have more than two dresses a year. It is forbidden to a burgess to spend more than six francs a yard on any material, and no more than eight francs per yard must be spent by ladies of superior rank. The penalty for infringing these laws being forfeiture of the forbidden article for a year, from Easter to Easter."
Sumptuary laws varied curiously according to the monarch by whom they were issued. Louis XI. would not allow those without titles to have the luxury of adorning their tables with pieces of gold plate, and goldsmiths had to ask his per- mission before exe- cuting any order except for the use of the Church. Charles VIII. would allow silk dresses, but no gold or silver cloth.
Francis L, Henri
II., Charles II., and Henri III., each forbade articles of luxury except for him- self, the members of his family, and his courtiers.
Rene Benoit, one of the confessors of Henri IV., used all his influence to stop luxury in the dress of his contemporaries, and the effect was disastrous on the Guipure and thread- work industry of the time.
During the reign of Charles IX. protest was made against the usurpation by common people " of the nobility's privilege of riding on horseback," and rich dressing was again allowed. Whatever the law of the period, the result was gene- rally the same : a return to the old abuses immediately on the removal of the edict, so that arrested development was the effect on the lace and kindred handicrafts ; and whereas one would expect a story of continuous prosperity in so beautiful a craft as lace-making, which appeals to everyone on account of the small initial outlay, the simplicity of the tools required, and the scope for high artistic skill, we are continually finding arrested development and check.
Even Venice, the home of lace, was not exempt from legislation which Even Vene-
hampered the evolution of lace. *'^" '*'=^'
A 1 xi ^ /-^ -1 r 1 , making was
AS early as 1299 the Crreat Council forbade any trinimmg which cost more than hampered by
five lire an ell. A few years later ladies were forbidden the use of jewellery beyond a legislation.
Saracenic example of Drawn and Embroidered Linen. From a Tomb in Egypt, tenth or eleventh century B.C.
Jiui'
10
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
In the 15th century the Pope per- mitted lace to be worn.
prescribed limit, and tine wearing of any coif in gold or silver. Children under twelve were forbidden to wear gold, silver, or pearls, but from twelve to twenty they were permitted girdles worth not more than twenty-five ducats.
Another decree in 1348 seems strange enough : morning dresses of dark green or black were forbidden.
In 1437, after another vexatious edict, the ladies took the matter into their own hands, and appealed to the Pope, who gave his permission for the wearing of the gauds.
These laws of the Venetian Senate were not made to be disregarded, as were many of those in England and France.
The Avogadori del Comune having seen on Carnival Sunday the wife of Zorzi di Bertucci dressed in white silk contrary to the law, " did decree that the honour- able lady and the dressinaher should be condemned according to the edict of 1470." Again, during the festivity for the crowning of Andrea Gritti, the niece of the Doge, the wife of one of the Pisani having presented herself at the Palace dressed in a fashion forbidden by the decree of the Doge, she was sent hack.
In 1476 a serious blow was aimed at the lace trade, for a law was made for- bidding the use of " silver and embroidery on any fabric and the Punto in Aria of linen threads made with a needle, or gold and silver threads."
Then in 1504 a law was made to check too frequent changes in fashion. "Among so many expenses, superfluous and useless, the women in this city
German Example of Drawn Linen Work, executed in the fourteenth century, when this eai-ly form of Open Ornamentation was soon to be superseded by the later forms of Lace-work.
-■='^^>!<»»essw?s5!^:-'^5»»WBBHH
EVOLUTION OF LACE.
1 1
show a vain-glorious pomp which is most ruinous for the nobles and burgesses: that of changing so often the shape of dresses."
In France, where the Sumptuary laws were carried out in a much more half-hearted manner, the futility of legislation is constantly seen. During the reign of Louis XIV., the lace-wearing period par excellence, there had never been so many edicts against the use of personal luxuries ; nearly a dozen ordinances, especially against lace-wearing, were published. The incongruity of the proclamations of the King against lace-trimmed garments, when at the same time he was fostering, subsidising, and encouraging Royal lace manufactures, simply shows that a Royal whim was more powerful in those days than logic. Discontent of the masses was eventually to effect what Royal edicts could not achieve, and even while still more lace than ever before was made and was used by every class, when, on account of the universal use of costly lace, it was impos- sible to know the burgher from the noblemen, the Churchman from the cavalier, the seeds of decay were sown, and a spirit of reaction and of economy grew which was to culminate in the citoyen period and the French Revolution.
Modest designs, less florid and costly workmanship, were demanded by the Court of Marie Antoinette, and the art of lace-making at its best died amongst the muslin folds in which the beautiful Queen clothed herself as a concession to the spirit of an age which demanded simplicity.
Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV., in establishing the home lace factories, foresaw the increase to the exchequer which the huge sums hitherto spent on foreign laces would entail, if French lace could be made to equal the Venetian fabric. The edicts checking the importation of foreign laces still further assisted his scheme. The result showed that the brilliant financier was right ; his mot that " Fashion should be to France what the mines of Peru were to Spain " has come true to the letter, and the great Napoleon saw no better way of improving the finances of the country than by endeavouring to reinstate the dying lace factories. Lace may be thought by some to be only a simple, graceful, womanish fabric, unlikely to affect the finances of a great nation ; but it has done much for France. She holds to-day a different position from that which she held in the days of Le Grand Monarque, but, thanks to Louis' clever minister, she still retains her position as the wardrobe of the world.
It will be useful to remember that, roughly speaking, lace, using the term as we now understand it, was first made and worn in the sixteenth century ; that its development was rapid, the splendid skill and delicacy of artistic design which characterised all the work of the Renaissance period tending to raise it to that lofty pinnacle of beauty which it reached in the seventeenth century ; that in the very climax of its perfection it began to dechne, and by the end of the eighteenth century the art of lace-making was dead. It is no exaggeration to affirm that the sharp blade of the guillotine which severed the head of the beautiful Marie Antoinette, also severed the thread which wove the masterpieces of lace, only a few of which remain to us in the present day to show how incomparably beautiful was the Renaissance lace, for such productions ceased abruptly at the end of the eighteenth century.
r
Simplicity and the French Revolution were fatal to fine lace.
I
The finest lace was made in the 17th century.
:. =n;. {^"Hi;;-'
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'":•;;:■ v''tlH
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I
Darned Netting or Lacis.
CHAPTER II.
ANECDOTAL HISTORY OF MEDIAEVAL LACE.
Picture of the Times. /„ //,e MiddU ^ges Imvs andcusloms in Europe laere begimiing to assitnte local peciiliarilies, the Church being a bond of unity beliveen nil nations — the Crusades, c. 1096 to 1273, tended tozvards this. After the Holy Wars came the struggle between France and England, the rise of the Spanish monarchies, the desiruclion of Imperial authority in Germany, the splendour and fall of the Italian republics, and the fall of Constantinople in 1453, ivhich drove the Greeks into the centre andivesl of Europe, and contributed to the causes of the Reformation.
In the fourteenth century Chaucer and Gower, the poets, lived. From the former ive learn much of the domestic and industrial life in England. Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio wrote their world-famous ivorks in Italy, and tell us incidentally of the fashions and modes of the period ; Rienzi lived ; Cimabue and Giotto painted. Playing-cards were invented, and paper ivas fust made from linen.
In the fifteenth century, in England, fe-w foreign luxuries found their way into the country, even for the use of the nobles. It ivas in this century that printing ami the art of engraving ivere invented, and by 1600 productions of Raphael were transferred to the tieivly invented paper, 'while Michael Angelo zvas assisting in the development of Art in Europe. The Tudors reigned in England ; America zvas discovered by Columbus ; andfoan of Arc lived.
In the sixteenth century the suppression of the monasteries took place in England : this had an immense influence on the lace-making atid kindred industries which had hitherto been exclusively carried on in the coni'ents It was a period of great development. Sir Philip Sidney and Raleigh flourished ; the defeat of the Spanish Armada took place ; Spenser producen his ^' Faery Queene^f and Shakespeare lived, together with Marlozve, Beaumont, Fletcher, and Ben Jonson. A seemingly unimportant inven- tion 'was made, — that of the pin. — but in the history of lace its utility is abundantly shown. In Itaty t/ie sixteenth century is famous as the ^f Medician era, the most brilliant in Literature and Art ; Ariosto, Tasso,
*!]>. and Machiavelli flourished ; and Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Correggio,
"I V Titian, and Michael Angelo 'were painting the masterpieces 'which have
■•,:- never since been surpassed. Luther's influence 'was at ivork in Germany.
■ .-...Ji.,;:?'^. '. where Albert Diirer, tlie father of the German school of painting and
:s£X';---"' engraving, also flourished at this titne. The great Spanish artist, yelas-
?'uez, to whom we are indebted for so many detail portraits showi>ig the ace of the period, and the mode of wearing it, belongs to this century.
T is a significant fact that the two widely-separated countries of Europe where pictorial art flourished and attained a high perfection — North Italy and Flanders — were precisely the countries where lace-making and lace-wearing achieved the highest standard in mediaeval times. This is perhaps hardly to
W
^M0^i!^'
Dfun'ii Iwf Isaac ^lu-cr XJmnn'
Queen Elizabeth, in ruff trimmed with the most elaborate Thread Guipure of the period; from an Engraving by George Vertue (1684=1756). The linen cuffs are turned over and edged with the same.
,
'■1'
i
MEDIEVAL LACE.
13
Eeticella, sixteenth century.
be wondered at, as we know that from the very beginning of the sturdy- Flemish school of painters, a close connection was kept up with the great art centres of Italy. Venetian art and handiwork inspired the equally thriving,
industrious, and artistic inhabitants of the Low Country, and at the end of the sixteenth century pattern books for laces and needle-point were issued simultaneously in the two places, and were identical in general character.
The history of hand-made lace, in the sense of the term in which we now use it, begins with the sixteenth century. Before that time there are no traces that we know of in the costume pictures of the period, and though this or that fantastic tale may be believed with regard to its earlier origin, and certain forms of lace work may be studied with profit as bearing on the evolution of lace, it is impossible to commence an authentic history at an earlier date.
The first detailed portraits in which lace is painted are those belonging to the early Florentine school ; this points to the fact that not only was lace first made in Italy, but also first worn there. One of the earliest French portraits with lace in it is that of Henri II., painted at Versailles.
From that time the subjects of so many por- traits have been adorned with lace, that the study of its variations in design, workmanship and mode of wearing is comparatively easy ; help is constantly received also from contemporary litera- ture, inventories and wardrobe accounts, and the Sumptuary laws of the different countries give con- siderable insight into the matter.
Documents still exist which prove that lace properly so called was made in Italy before 1500; one belonging to the Cathedral of Ferrara is especially interesting, as it fixes the price to be paid for the mending and ironing of the lace trimmings on the priests' vestments.
Double evidence of the existence of lace, and, moreover, of special makes and designs, is afforded in the records of the Sforza family. In 1493, on the 1 2th of September, the division took place of the property of the sisters Angela and HeppoHta Sforza, Vicqnti of Milan ; the old castle belonging to the family is still to be seen in the Province of Venice.
Amongst the vast amount of valuable jewels and other personal property in the inventory are embroidery of fine network (Ricamo a reticella), points (Punii), pieces of fine network
The history of hand' made lace begins in the 16th century.
Sleeve trimmed with the Cutwork of the fifteenth century. From " Lucretia," by Bassano ; painted about 1462. Photo- graph by Anderson, Rome.
chronicled borders, veils,
Inventory belonging to the Sforza family first mentions varying kinds of Lace.
14
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
(Lavoro a groppi), bone lace (Lavoro ad ossaj, and twelve spindle points fPunti dei
dodisi fiisi). All these names are to be found in books of lace designs of the period.
No wonder that several different countries, notably France, Spain, and
Flanders, claim the honour of introducing so beautiful a fabric as lace to the world.
i
Beatrix d'Este-Sforza, Duchess of Milan, 1490. From the picture by Leonardo da Vinci, in the Ambrosian Library at Milan. From her inventory of household effects we first learn the names and varieties of laces known in the fifteenth century. Photograph by Anderson, Rome.
and it is in the history of lace in the Middle Ages that the arguments used in this controversy must be touched upon. We have shown that many peoples have executed networks and twisted threads of gold, silver, and silk ; but in its more modern guise, Italy has certainly led the world with regard to needle-point lace. It
MEDL^VAL LACE.
15
is astonishing that notwithstanding the inventory of the Sisters Sforza and other documents, besides the Itahan pattern boolcs of the fifteenth century, one writer asserts that it was under Francis I. in 1544 that "Women and the dignitaries of the Church began to adorn their garments and vestments with a kind of lace which was so coarsely Avorked that it showed the art was in its infancy."
Again, several have attributed the inven- tion of lace to Barbara Uttmann ; perhaps the words on her tomb in the churchyard of Annaberg gave rise to the idea : " Here lies Barbara Uttmann, died 14th January, 1575, whose invention of lace in the year 1561 made her the benefactress of the Hartz Mountains."
Charles of Savoy, painted in 1582, in the Lace-edged Ruft" of the period.
Catherine de' Medicis, by JeanClouet (1541). It was this Queen who brought with her from Italy the fashion of wearing the high collar still named after her.
It is probable that Frau Uttmann intro- duced bobbin lace into Germany, hav- ing learned the art from a native of Brabant, a Protestant, whom the cruel- ties of the Duke of Alva had made an exile. That she "invented" lace is a misleading assertion. Barbara was born in 1514 at Utterlein, where her father had work in connection with the mines of the Saxon Hartz Mountains. She married Christopher Uttmann, a rich mining overseer. The mountain girls in the neighbourhood of her home had long made a kind of network for the miners to wear over their hair. Barbara taught them to improve this rough tricot, and they suc- ceeded in producing a kind of plain lace ground. Aid was procured from Flan- ders, and a regular workshop set up at Annaberg under the direction of Barbara Uttmann, who invented various simple patterns. The industry spread with great rapidity, and at one time no fewer
Needle-point Guipure Laoe (Point Gotico).
i6
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
The oldest lace pattern book known is no-w in the library of the Arsenal in Venice.
than 30,000 persons were employed in it. At the age of sixty-one Barbara Uttmann died, leaving sixty-five children and grandchildren, thus realising a prophecy that St. Anne would so bless the one good Chatelaine of St. Annaberg that her descendants would equal in number the bobbins of the first lace she had made.
Flanders bases her claim to priority in making bobbin lace on a series of six woodcats executed in 1580 by Martin de Vos, De Brugn, and Van Londerseel, which represent occupations during the various periods of life ; amongst these a young woman is shown seated with a lace cushion on her lap, whence it is argued that lace was already common in Flanders at that time.
In Venice, as early as 1557, a book was published giving patterns for bobbin laces. In the course of some inter- esting remarks entitled '• Le Pompe," the author explains that this lace "is a work not only beautiful, but useful and needful." This volume is now to be seen in the library of the Arsenal in Venice, and is the oldest known lace pattern book. It is likely, however, that it was not the first brought out, as no instructions are given in it as to how the lace is made, nor is there any de- scription of the materials and implements required; this makes it probable that the author, whose name is un- known, was not the inventor of pillow lace, and that the handi- craft was already well known in Venice. Evidence, there- fore, appears to favour the theory that to Italy belongs the honour of introducing bobbin as well as needle-point lace.
In England the humble endeavours of the peasants in mediaeval times were not assisted by schools of design, nor were the peasant lace-makers of Germany, Sweden, Russia, and Spain encouraged to produce fabrics of artistic pattern. When Barbara Uttmann instructed the country folk of the Hartz Mountains in the sixteenth century, a sort of purling and network was the kind produced ; and German laces have never acquired artistic reputation.
Christian IV., King of Denmark, 1577—1648; by Peeter Isaakoz. This portrait shows how impor- tant a feature was lace in the rich dress of the period.
MEDIEVAL LACE.
17
In 1246 Pope Innocent IV. ordered vestments to be sent to Rome for his use, despatching an official letter to an English abbot to procure the optts Anglicanum or nuns' work. Lace is still called nuns' work in outlying districts in England and the Continent.
But it was not only in convents that the art of lace-making was taught. The great ladies — heads of households — prided themselves on the number of young girls who came to their castles or suzerain manors, and, taking up a temporary residence, were taught lace-making, embroidery, weaving, and matters in connection with the
still-room. During the hours while the needles were plied, singing was encouraged, and Special songs certain ballades a toiles were ^"^l^^f^ composed especially for the makers as use of the workers. Such they worked, ballads are still used in Italy (one specially composed for this book is given in the chapter on " The Literature of Lace").
Many interesting historical scenes have taken place in the working rooms of royal ladies. Wolsey found Queen Catherine at work amongst her women when he went to her at Bride- well to speak of her divorce. The unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots found solace in plying the needle during her lonely hours of captivity, and in many of her letters demands are made for silk and gold thread. She had learnt the art from her governess, Lady Fleming, and had been perfected by Catherine de' Medicis, who was a famous needlewoman.
M. de Barante, the his- torian of the Duke of Burgundy, writes that Charles the Bold in 1476 lost his laces at one of the battles in which he was engaged. It is probable that these laces were of the gold or silver gimp variety, as fragments of such kinds are among his relics. Jacob Van Eyck, the Flemish poet, sang the praises of lace-making in the long-winded Latin verse of the day; they end with this somewhat involved period : — " Go, ye men, inflamed with the desire of the Golden Fleece, endure so many dangers by land, so many at sea, whilst the woman, remaining in her Brabantine home, prepares Phrygian fleeces by peaceful assiduity." It was the
c
Elizabeth of Bourbon, painted about 1620, in the Lace-edged Euil of the period.
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Refugees from Flan- ders taught bobbin lace- making to the whole of Northern Europe,
The kinds of lace made in mediaeval times.
Cut-work,
Punto Applicato,
lace manufacture alone which saved Flanders from utter ruin when the country was deserted by so many handicraftsmen, who fled from the awful religious persecution. Owing to the exodus at this time, every country of Northern Europe learned the art of bobbin lace-making from Flanders.
The manufacture of that most beautiful of laces, Brussels, commenced in mediaeval times, judging from the patterns of the earliest known fragments, which are to be found in the churches of Brabant ; these pieces formed gifts of munificent noblemen, who did much to promote the industry of their country by their patronage. Linen embroideries, darned netting, knotted and plaited laces were made in the convents all over Europe at this period, and were chiefly used for Church purposes. Sometimes the convent rules were considerably relaxed for the benefit of the lace-workers, and mediaeval human nature seems to have been very much like that existing at the present day, as an old journal of the kloster at the convent of Wadstena, Sweden, shows. Mrs. Bury Palliser thus relates the incident :
"The rules of the convent forbade the nuns to touch either gold or silver, save in their netting and embroidery.
" One of the nuns writes to her lover without the walls — ' I wish I could send you a netted cap that I myself have made, but when Sister Karin Andersdotter saw that I had mingled gold and silver thread in it she said, " You must surely have some beloved."
" ' " I do not think so," I answered, "here in the kloster you may easily see if any of the brethren has such a cap, and I dare not send it by anyone to a sweetheart outside the walls."
" ' " You intend it for Axel Nelson," answered Sister Karin.
" ' " It is not for you to talk," I replied, " I have seen you net a long hood and talk and prattle yourself with Brother Bertol." ' "
It was not until the sixteenth century that lace-making became a lay industry. In Italy and Spain, where the influence of the Church was paramount, point and bobbin lace work remained confined to the religious orders until long after. Gradually the nuns taught the art to their lay pupils, but it spread but slowly.
The kinds of lace work made in mediaeval times were linen embroidery and reticella, darned netting on knotted net, darned netting on twisted net, drawn work, macrame plaited laces, cut work and embroidery. (For full description of each see " Dictionary of Lace.")
Cut-work comprised a wide variety of decoration. The linen edges were sometimes worked in close embroidery, the threads occasionally drawn and afterwards worked with the needle in various forms ; or the ends of the cloth were, perhaps, unravelled as if for a fringe and then plaited in a geometric pattern. The grave clothes of St. Cuthbert were ornamented in this manner. " There has been," says one who witnessed his disinterment, " put over him a sheet ; this sheet had a fringe of linen thread of a finger's length upon its sides."
Cut-work is sometimes made with fine lawn, called quintain, which is fastened to a background of interlacing threads, the lawn being cut away when the pattern has been stitched on. This variety is occasionally called Punto Applicato.
MEDIEVAL LACE.
19
Another form of this work was made without the opaque lawn, and was simply a network darned upon with counted stitches, Point Coiitc. This work is also called Lacis.
Lace, or passements, the general term for the gimps and braids, together with the laces, like those with which in modern times we unite two parts of a dress, were made of silk, worsted, or thread. They also serve as links in the chain of
evidence which brings us to the hand- made laces of to-day.
Cut-work sometimes signified what we now call applique work, mean- ing rather the cutting-out of pieces of velvet, silk, or cloth, and sewing them down to the garment with braid, than the open linen work, which the modern meaning of the work describes. Chaucer speaks of the priests wear- ing gowns of scarlet and green cut-work.
In the middle of the sixteenth century Point Coupe became widely known. Geometrical pat- terns were the most used; the linen on which the work was done was of splendidly tough make, which rendered possible the survival of specimens to the present day. Darned netting dates back as early as linen embroidery ; it was very exten- sively used in the Middle Ages, especially in Russia and Sicily, where it is still popular. The earlier patterns are of the old lozenge type, and also include fleiir de lis and other armorial designs, monsters, and foliage. Many of the old pattern books give designs for darned netting ; in fact, this kind appears almost exclusively in those earlier published. In the Exeter Cathedral inventory it is stated that there were, in 1327, three pieces of darned netting for use at the altar.
Drawn-work was as well known in the Middle Ages as were cut-work and darned netting ; altar cloths and winding-sheets were chiefly ornamented with
c 2
Point Conte or Lacis,
Passements, gimps, and braids.
Cavaliera Fiammingo, in Collar of Guipure Point Gotico ; painted by Francesco Pourbus in the sixteenth century. This picture is now in the Academie at Venice. Photograph by Naya, Venice.
Darned netting.
Drawn' work.
20
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Knotted lace.
Bobbin lace.
it; groups of animals, strange monsters, armorial shields, heraldic devices, and weird-looking trees served as designs, such patterns being more suitable for the scope of the work than the intricate geometric patterns used in darned netting. This was the favourite lace of the ladies of the powerful house of Medici, both in Italy and in France, and it was natural that the kind which was admired by the reigning house should be popular with the nobles. The ruffs and manchettes, the aprons and collars of the period were all trimmed with the finest reticella and drawn-work, which formed an important item in the trousseau of a noble lady of the Middle Ages.
The bridal or carnival laces, as they were called, were not only worn at the wedding, but also at the succession of festivities always given in honour of the event ; they were subsequently kept for wearing at carnivals and other stately ceremonials when the relaxation of the Sumptuary laws permitted their display. The patterns were usually formed by the armorial devices of the contracting families being combined. Since mediaeval' times reticella, or drawn-work, has not been much used for personal adornment. It is now considered more suitable for Church and holisehold use.
Though knotted borders and fringes occur on garments of Eastern nations in remote times, the more intricate knotted lace dates from the fifteenth century. It is spoken of in the first record of Italian laces, as we have already mentioned, in the Sforza inventory, and patterns are given in books in use in the first half of the sixteenth century. In the mediaeval method of working it, horizontal threads were fixed on heavy pillows, and to them vertical threads were attached ; the knotting was done much in the same way as on the macrame cushion of the present day.
The making of the knotted lace, Lavoro a gfoppi, was chiefly confined to Italy. None of it is found in either France or the Netherlands, the two other lace centres of the Middle Ages. It was used on the linen scarves, or cloths, worn as head- coverings by the peasants, the patterns being occasionally most intricate. In the seventeenth century, however, the long fringed ends were again allowed to flow free without elaborate knotting. Lavoro a groppi never achieved the popularity of the other mediaeval laces.
When once the pillow was introduced for facilitating the making of knotted lace, or macrame, the plaiting of loose threads did not take long to grow in popularity. The work was easier than the knotting, less straining to the fingers, more suitable for light and graceful patterns than could be achieved in cut-work, drawn-work, or knotting. The success of plaited laces was assured, and the introduction of bobbins, whether owing to the accidental discovery of a love-sick maiden, according to the story well-known in the City of the Lagoons, or to some other source, soon came about. The legend is pretty and worthy of mention as a graceful story only.
A young fisherman of the Adriatic was betrothed to a girl, who made for him a new net as a gift. The first time it was cast the only catch was a piece of petrified wrack grass or white coralline weed. Soon afterwards the fisherman was pressed into the service of the Venetian Navy, and the girl was left with the now useless net in her charge. While she wept bitterly she wound the delicate coralline
MEDIEVAL LACE.
21
strands in and out of the net, then twisted the threads and small weights attached, and made an imitation of the spirals of the grass, throwing and twisting the lead just as the bobbins are thrown. The effect was so beautiful and easily obtained that the girl, who was accustomed to making the coarse guipure of the period, followed up her discovery, in course of time evolving serviceable tools, not unlike the cushion and bobbins of the present day.
Mary Queen of Scots, in Coif edged with purling, the narrow edging of twisted threads ; the Ruff is trimmed with Guipure Lace.
The Le Puy factory appears to be the most ancient of the French lace centres dating back to the sixteenth century ; it was in connection with this factory that the Jesuit father, Samt Fran9ois Regis, who is considered the patron saint of the lace-makers, earned his canonisation. Sumptuary edicts were published by the Seneschal of Le Puy which threatened to annihilate the lace trade, a heavy fine being imposed on any who wore lace upon their clothes. The reasons for the edicts have an element of humour in them : the general custom of wearing lace
Le Puy in France dates its connec- tion with the lace trade from the i6th century.
22 HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
among all classes was undesirable, it was said, as it caused the distinction between high and low to disappear. Father Regis not only consoled the sufferers in their poverty, brought on by the edict, but also went to Toulouse and obtained a revocation of it.
Pattern books of the sixteenth century give instructions for plaiting gold and silver threads ; Lucca, Genoa, Florence, Venice, and Milan were all celebrated for their gold and silver plaiting; and Point d'Espagne was known and worked in coloured silks as well as metal covered threads. It was in Genoa and the neighbourhood that the lace-workers first ceased to follow the fashion in using only geometrical patterns for plaited lace work, and produced in silk and flax the scalloped borders. This Point de Genes Frise became famous. A history of the manufacture of this lace at Albissola, a village near Genoa, was written, and a full account is given of the famous sixteenth century plaited laces of silk in black, white and varied colours.
Point de Genes Frises was worn as the handsomest lace procurable until the seventeenth century, when the reign of Mediaeval lace was over, and the elaborate needle-point and bobbin laces of the Renaissance period swept the older and simpler methods into oblivion.
Early specimen of Gold and Silver Thread Lace.
IHH»¥}«!:<<:<:QS!a3H
Bobbin = made Brussels Lace Flounce, 26 inches wide, late seventeenth century. Given by M. de Maintenon to Francois de Salignac de la Mothe Fenelon, consecrated Archbishop of Cambrai in 1695.
Specimens of rich Venetian Point, Tagliato I'oliami and Rose Point.
CHAPTER III.
ANECDOTAL HISTORY OF LACE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
Picture of the Times. // /s imporlant to remem- ber that the seventeenth century was a period of great colonial activity^ so that fresh markets zvere opened for the lace and other industries. The East India Company ivas founded, famaica was comntered, Boston founded^ as well as Pennsylvania^ Maryland^ and Carolina, the French West India Company flourished, and the Dutch settled at the Cape of Good Hope.
The act which has had tnore influence than any other on the History of Lace, took place in France in this century. This was the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, ivhich was instrumental in scattering the lace-makers and lace merchants all over Protestant Europe. It took place in 1685, when Louis XIV. zuas on the throne. Richelieu and Mazarin were the great French Ministers of the century ; while in England. Cromwell's was the master mind ; and the austerity in dress of the Roundheads for a time depressed the lace trade, which flourished again at the Restoration of Charles II. The dez/astating influence of the Plague and the Fire of London affected all industries. In Hollatid, the Treaty of Nimeguen in 1678 changed the nationality of many important lace" centres. IVilliam III. of Holland eventually became King of England. In Russia, the brilliant Court of the Romanoff (tynasty held sway, and the personal symplicity of Peter the Great was in vivid contrast to the barbaric splendour of the surroundings of Catherine I. Literature and Science in Europe were represented during the century in France by Balzac, Corneille, Racine, Fcnelon, Moliere, La Fontaine, Bossuet, and Boileau, and the Academic Franfaise was founded. England ivas represented by Algernon Sidney, Milton, Locke, Waller, Ottvay, Drycfen, and Harvey. The Royal Society ivas founded. In Italy, Sarpi, Marini, Tassoni, and Galileo 'were celebrated. In Spain Cervantes ivrote his immortal ^^ Don Quixote." Tlie artists of the century include such names as IVatteau, Fra- gonard, Charles Lebrun, Abraham Basse, Guido, Albani, Salvator Rosa, Domenichino, Rubens, Van Dyck, Rembrandt and the two Tenters.
THE history of lace in the seventeenth century is the history of the fabric at the most elaborate and beautiful stage of its development. To Italian influence at the end of the sixteenth century was due the fashion then obtaining throughout Europe of wearing the ruffs decorated in a lavish manner with the
24
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
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Francois, Prince of Savoy-Carignan, by Van Dyck. 1634. He wears the rich lace collar and cuffs of the period.
Venice fur- nished most of the
luxuries and led the fashions.
geometric lace of the period. Lace of gold and silver thread trimmed the mantles, cloaks, and all other garments; the raised points of Venice were well known, for, despite the commencement of the decline in the prosperity of Venice, that
city maintained for a short time longer her high position as the creator of all models of fashion and luxury. The Venetian silks and costly laces were unrivalled, and when factories were to be established in other parts of Europe, it was from Italy that skilled work- men were enticed.
Catherine de' Medicis, on her arrixal from Italy, encouraged enormous expenditure on dress, at the court in Paris, believing that the brilliant fetes would divert the minds of the people from the unsatisfactory political state. Sumptuary edicts were issued in vain, no fewer than ten being proclaimed during the last half of the sixteenth century ; but at the same time the King wore on his dress enormous quantities of gold lace, at the meeting of the States of Blois.
Bare specimen of Bobbin-made Lace of unusual width and degraded ornament resembling the Peasant Lace of Crete. In each scallop a man with uplifted arms holds a flagon, and on either side are deer.
.^u.^^.uMvvw.n>;<v«a09.V>WSMC«CCfCCC{»(««««ii:£«{>:Ji'9Sti£&{i:S!S39
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SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
25
Madame Verbiest, by Gonzales Coqiies. 1664. One of the first pictorial representations of straig'ht-edg'ed lace which by this time rivalled the early scalloped edges in popular favour.
In 1594, 1600, 1601, and 1606, Henri IV., his successor, made other Sumptuary laws and abided by them himself, wearing " a doublet of taffety without either trimming or lace"; and Sully, his minister, prohibited under pain
of corporal punishment any dealings with foreign lace merchants. " It is necessary," he said, " to rid ourselves of our neighbour's goods which deluge the country."
As long as Marie de' Medicis lived, the upstanding collar worn at the back of the dress, which still bears the name of the Medicis collar, was used with its edgings of fine lace. The ruin of the nobles on account of their extravagance in dress becoming imminent, in 1613 the Queen published the " Reglement pour les super- in which the wearing of lace and embroidery was forbidden.
Italian-made Bobbin Lace, 6| inches wide, about 1650, showing- the change from the Vandyked to the straight edge which took place at that period.
fluites des habits,
The Medicis collar, which is still so popular, was intro' duced in the 17th century.
26 HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
In a curious collection of costumes of the period made by M. de Bonnard (Bibliotheque Nationale), the enormously extravagant use of lace may be seen.
In one portrait the corsage, which is decollete, is trimmed with Point d'Angleterre, the brocaded train with rich braid ; in front, a petticoat, made entirely of Point de France, is displayed. The shoulders are covered with a cape with double flounce of Point d'Angleterre, and on the head is worn a hat of fine Valenciennes guipure, wired and drawn.
It was at this time that many of the old pattern books were printed, no fewer than six at Lyons, and many editions of Vinciola's works in Paris from 1587 to 1623 ; full details of these are given in the chapter on the " Literature of Lace."
Point de Venise in relief was first produced to supply the demand for some novelty at this time ; the old type suggested to the workers the creation of the new, and so popular was the raised point from the first moment of its introduction, that for many years it dethroned all other kinds of lace in the taste of the public. Seguin says, " If perfection can exist on earth, it has been attained by the makers of lace, and this specially applies to the Venetian lace of this period." Its distinctive style lies in the ornaments of flowers or leaves, which have a richly raised outline. This outline is filled with jours or stitches of the most beautiful and intricate kind. The different sections of the design are united by a groundwork of brides decorated with pearls or loops. The effect is that of carved ivory, though the lace has a soft and velvety richness which the coldness of ivory can never imitate ; these reliefs wrought in flax thread are amongst the most beautiful objects in the world.
For a long time Venice only produced this lace, but Colbert introduced it into France when he obtained Italian Avorkers for the French factories; and in the middle of the seventeenth century it was as much made in France as were the bobbin and other pillow laces during the reign of Louis XV. Venice point made in France, was, by Royal ordinance, called Point de France.
Lace-making was stimulated, fresh designs appeared constantly, and the beauti- ful points of Italy and Flanders began to make their appearance at all the Courts of Europe ; besides being used in the decoration of the altars of the Church, and in the trimming of the priests' vestments. The falling Immediately after the introduction of Point de Venise, the ruff" or fraise became
collar re- demode, as unsuitable for displaying its charms, and was replaced by the deep
jyff^ scalloped collar, made entirely of lace or with rich point lace border. This change
in the fashion produced an interesting modification in the French guipure, another of the laces of the period. The fabric had hitherto been fine and light, so that it would stand out well as a trimming for the ruffs when mounted on cambric or lawn : now it became heavier, as more suitable for the falling collar ; the edges were enriched Yv^ith a kind of point d'esprit, made with three projecting wheat-shaped lobes, which gave weight and helped to keep the collar in place. Later, when guipure was less made, these lobes were imitated, and the colour was dyed a pale yellow to falsely indicate age, so that purchasers might believe that the lace had been made during the falling collar period. At this time the guipure designs were extremely characteristic, being much more ornamented than at any other. The ornaments were tied to one another, and opened in a vase or fan-shaped pattern which was most effective, more especially from the great beauty and delicacy of the work.
»Mi.wojo.NKinii>->mai
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
27
Sleeves were trimmed with revers of lace, lace hung down from the tops Every gar-
of the men's boots, and garters worn like a bandage or scarf round the knee "^f^t was
• 1-1 1 1 T 1 ii r 1 trimmed
were edged with pomt lace ; on dress and court shoes a large rosette 01 lace ^j^h i^ce,
adorned the instep ; gloves, caps, aprons, capes in double and treble tiers were even to the worn by the ladies, and Italian laces adorned even the christening suits. garters of
In one of M. de Bonnard's pictures we see that even the servants wore lace- the men. trimmed garments ; the attendants of the young Due d'Anjou are covered with costly points, and the cradle, bed, and sheets are decorated with the same beautiful fabric. The household table linen of this time was richly trimmed with lace.
It was in the seventeenth century that in French Flanders, in Valenciennes,
and the surrounding district, the laces with straight border were first made. This was an im- portant innovation, for hitherto elaborate escalops only had been known. It must be remembered that the Valenciennes of this period was different from that we are accustomed to see in the modern production : the net had a much larger mesh and the thread used was infinitely finer. Though Italian laces of the seventeenth century were per- fectly imitated in France, the laces of Belgium and England of the same period were not made except in the countries in which they had originated. This is accounted for by the special stitch, called the crossing or crochetage, being a trade secret, and jealously guarded.
When the marriage of Louis
Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I. of England, from a painting- by Van Dyck (from Seidlitz's "Historical Portraits "). The great artist's appreciation of the rich and beautiful effect of lace is very apparent.
XIII. to Anne of Austria took
place, the collars of the Medicis
changed in character, being worn
farther from the head and sloping more outwards, and Spanish lace became the
favourite.
Edicts were constantly being issued, the most celebrated of the many in the seventeenth century being that called the Code Michaud, which entered into the most minute regulations of the toilet which a grandmotherly legislation could devise; but there was little result beyond laughter, and a budget of clever skits and caricatures; and when Louis XIII. died, his effigy was exposed to public view dressed in a shirt of fine holland, with rich lace collar and manches, or outside cull trimmings, of Italian point.
28
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Spanish lace was \vorn when a Spanish Princess became Queen of France.
Colbert founded the Alenccn factory.
The courtiers of the Regency under Anne of yVustria were no less extravagant in their taste for fine lace. The size of the boot tops was compared to the farthin- gales of the women, and the space between outstanding leather and the Hmb was filled with ruffles of costly lace. Mazarin, in 1652, while engaged in the siege of a town, was purchasing laces from Flanders, Venice, and Genoa. These were intended as patterns for the factories of Point de P'rance, which were already contemplated. In 1660 fresh Sumptuary orders were passed, prohibiting the use of all foreign laces, Genoa Points and Point Coupes ; even French laces were not allowed of more than one inch in width, and lace collars and cuffs were to be worn only for one year after the issue of the edict ; after that lime they were to be of linen trimmed with lace not exceeding one inch in width.
From the time of the mar- riage of Louis XIV. with the Infanta, Spanish laces, out of compliment to the Spanish prin- cess, increased in popularity and were considered most recherche when worn over rich gowns of silver or gold brocade.
Then followed more edicts prohibiting the use of foreign laces, before Colbert adopted the scheme for securing for France the large sums disbursed by the lace-wearers. Selecting some of the best workers of Italy and Flanders, he established a lace factory at Lonray, at Alen9on, appointing a manager who knew the Venetian method of lace- making ; and under her thirty forewomen ,who had been brought from Venice. The work executed delighted the King and his courtiers, who declared the Alen9on specimens to be superior to those of Venice. A large sum of money was given to Madame Gilbert, the manager, and the lace received the name of Point de France. In 1665 the manufacture of it was founded on a princely scale, and a grant of 36,000 francs was made, together with an exclusive privilege for ten years. The decree, dated August, 1665, ordained "that there shall be established at Guesney, Arras, Rheims, Sedan, Chateau- Thierry, Loudun, Alen9on, Aurillac, etc., manufactures of all kind of works with thread, either with needle or upon pillow, like those made in Venice, Genoa, Ragusa, and they will be called Points de France."
Portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller, showing' the lace head-dress called the Pontange, after the favourite of the French king', who initiated the fashion. Point de France, showing the Venetian influence, is the kind of lace used.
L-jcog«>o-j^.a.»j^^^^fc»3e;q»x>f»Kgso.i^'^MJ.MIilllllll'imH
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SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
29
Other factories were set up at Argentan and the Chateau de Madrid. At the latter the best work was executed, for the most famous artists designed the graceful patterns ; it was this factory that was patronised by the Royal household.
Not only were foreign laces forbidden, but a special decree forbade " the production, sale, or use of any kind of thread point laces made with the needle, whether old or modern, except those made in the Royal manufactories." French characteristics began to show themselves at the different factories, and the laces
which had begun by being copies of the Venice Point, and had been called collectively Point de France, were soon distinguished by their different characteristics as Alen9on, Argentan, etc.
It was during the reign of Louis XIV. that the Edict of Nantes was revoked, and this had such a disastrous effect on the French lace industry and assisted to such a vast extent in spreading the knowledge of lace- making in all the capitals of Europe where there was religious toleration, that it may be con- sidered the act of legislation which has had the most im- portant influence of any on the history of lace. Through it France lost 500,000 of her best citizens, and it is said that when Louis XV. asked Frederick the Great what he could do for him to show his gratitude, the
T.r/i,„.,/,fr.Mu Uiviitfatrhiri^^^e'C^rnnrf^iniatrei.
gt Secfefair-g c^ /lst*if .rr ?. ,- Cr"'nti7ri?erTt,-nj "ie Sit \fnieyte
Jean Baptists Colbert, Minister of Louis XIV. , who established the great lace factories at Alenfon and elsewhere, with a view to keeping in France the fortunes spent by the courtiers on Venetian and Flemish laces. He wears a falling collar of Point de France.
The revoca- tion of the Edict of Nantes spread the knowledge of lace - making throughout Europe.
German sovereign asked for " A second revocation of the Edict of Nantes," doubtless remem- bering that before the influx of French emigrants, Berlin had only 15,000 inhabitants, and that its silk, lace and other industries were practically non-existent.
When Louis XIV. became so zealous for the welfare of the Roman Catholic Church, under the influence of Madame de Maintenon and his confessor, the Jesuit father La Chaise, all the chief manufactures were in the hands of the Protestants. It is difficult to account for this fact except that it was then a dogma in the Roman Catholic Church that profit on a loan was usury and undesirable. The Huguenots held no such opinion, so that mortgages, borrowed capital and other means for extending trade were freely used by them with excellent result. The persecutions.
3°
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
imprisoning, forfeiture of estates and other penalties soon drove all these worthy
citizens, together with their riches and industrial capacity, into other countries,
where their religious views were tolerated.
Tours lost her ribbon factories, the number of looms falling from 8,000 to 200,
In Lyons the weavers were reduced from 18,000 to 4,000, and nearly the whole of
her trade in gold and silver laces, which was valued at four million francs yearly,
was transferred to Genoa. Fifty thousand workmen took refuge in England,
Flanders, Germany, and Switzerland, bringing with them their trade secrets and
establishing factories, from which France would henceforth be compelled to buy
her supplies instead of being in the
position to supply the world. From
Alen9on the skilled workmen took
their trade with them to the North.
London received the silk weavers
from Lyons at Spitalfields.
The lace industry of France
suffered terribly, and after leading
the world during the brilliant Colbert
period in the manufacture of the
finest needle-point laces, produced
only the cheaper and more easily
made varieties, the best kinds being
imported from Venice and Flanders. The driving into exile of her
most skilful workers was not the
only reason for the decline of the
Alen9on factories. At this time the
original Point de Venipe designs
were neglected, and lace was no
longer made raised in relief, with
the result that richness in effect was
lost, and the pure outlines and
delicate arabesques shrank and
dwindled until the final stage of
decadence, the dotted style, was
reached.
Colbert was distressed and
uneasy at the falling away of the
foreign markets from purchasing at the lace factories he had established with so
much care. He wrote to M. de St. Andre, then French Ambassador in Venice,
charging him to give exact information of the laces made in Venice and Burano — " If
they are made in as large quantities as in former times, and where they are exported." France no It is interesting thus to see that the Points of Venice appropriated by France,
longer i"^de a,s Point de France, and imitated by other countries, their fame being clouded by Point de unskilful copies, were once more made exclusively in Venice, their original home.
Venise. It is doubtless most desirable that one nation should imitate what is beautifully
Andre le Notre, Chevalier of the order of St. Michael, Councillor of the King (Louis XIV.), Controller General of His Majesty's Gardens, Arts and Manufactories of France. He wears sleeve ruffles and cravat of richest Point de France, which at that period was identical with Venetian Point.
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 31 •
created by another, stamping on the original invention some special character- istics, but at any rate in the case of Point de Venise, Fate seems to have decided that the original trade should return to the city which gave birth to the type.
After rivaUing Venice and Genoa in all industrial arts in the Middle Ages, Belgium had suffered through the persecution of her skilled workpeople by the Spanish Government. In 1620, however, the new activity in the commerce of lace
Henry, Prince of Wales, son of King James I., in elaborate collar trimmed with Punto in Aria of very beautiful desig-n.
revived the old industry, which spread from Valenciennes, then a town of Flanders, to Antwerp, Lille, and Bruges.
At the commencement of the Belgian lace industry the Gothic and Venetian styles had been copied; later on the Genoa Guipures were adopted; and finally the Belgian Point de Gaze was invented, and from it the celebrated Point de Bruxelles and no less important Applique.
The impetus to point lace-making in the seventeenth century benefited the bobbin lace industry indirectly, for those who could not afford to wear needle-point must needs be in the fashion in lace-wearing, and an increased demand for the
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
A new fashion in lace-wearing introduced on a battlefield.
A popular head-dress was the result of an accident.
cheaper pillow laces sprang up. The paintings of this period, the portraits by Rubens, Van Dyck, and Rembrandt, the figures and interiors by Watteau and Fragonard, the engravings of Abraham Bosse, all show us the rich profusion of lace worn by both men and women on every occasion, whether a christening, a wedding, a funeral, or one of the fetes of that brilliant period.
Nor were the courtiers the only wearers of Point de France. In 1690 a passport was demanded to allow the passing through of laces for the use of the officers of the army, and one of the most popular fashions of t-he day originated on the battlefield. It was at the battle of Steinkirk, in 1692, that the officers suddenly ordered into action, having no time to arrange their lace cravats in the elaborate method in vogue at the time, knotted them hastily and drew them through a button-hole. The fashion originated by the victorious officers became the rage for both men and women in France and England for half-a-centnry.
With the century died the fashion of wearing the high head-dress of wired lace, called La Fontange. This head-dress, which was at first low and graceful, was originated by the royal favourite whose name it bears. Her hair having become disarranged while out hunting, she bound up the flowing locks with her lace hand- kerchief. Louis XIV. was so charmed with the coiffure that he desired she should appear in it at the Court ball in the evening ; after that, every lady who desired to court royal favour appeared with a head-dress a la Fontange, until the mode became exaggerated ; wire was used to support the lace, sermons were preached about the exaggeration of its height, and Madame la Mode tired of her dainty whim.
In England, during the early part of the seventeenth century,' the ruff, some- times with double tier, dehghted the Court gallants and aroused the wrath of the preachers, who waxed eloquent against the vanity of " the popinjays and plaister faced Jezebels." Like the ruffs worn in France and Italy at the same period, they were edged with elaborate geometric point, and Ben Jonson says, in the time of James I., that " men thought nothing of turning four or five hundred acres of their best land into two or three trunks of apparel." It was about 1600 that the fashion for saffron- tinted lace appeared in England, and the Dean of Westminster ordered " that no man or woman wearing yellow ruffs be admitted to the Church." Either this order discouraged their appearance, or the fact that Mrs. Turner, the inventor of yellow starch, was hanged at Tyburn in 1615 for the Overbury murder, and thus rendered that especial tint distasteful ; at any rate the fashion disappeared.
The French mode of wearing Flanders and Venice points held sway in England, and Lord Bacon wrote, " Our English dames are much given to the wearing of costly laces, and if brought from Italy, or France, or Flanders, they are in much esteem." In 1621 there was a movement set on foot to establish an office "to repress pride by levying taxes on all articles of luxury," and in 1623 a complaint of the decay of the bone lace trade caused distress in Great Marlow.
Queen Anne of Denmark was most patriotic in her taste, and purchased "Great bone lace and Little bone lace" at Winchester and Basing; the lace for the layette of the Princess Sophia cost £6i/\. 5s. 8d.
Cut-work was still a favourite in England for the trimming of the falling collars which came in when ruffs went out of fashion, and Medicis collars were worn as at the Court of France. At the death of Queen Anne, wife of James I.
'<'\v/^v v>.'vx>.>o. K.xUkUjacMtNaMI
Seventeenth=century Point de France, showing the Venetian influence, figures are characteristic of this period.
The
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 33
in 1619, a large veil was used to drape the hearse, with "peak lace wired, and lawn Lace used curiously cut in flowers." ^t ^ Royal
Though Charles I. is occasionally represented in a ruff during the early years of his reign, the fashion practically died with King James I., being superseded by the fall of lace-trimmed linen ; but extravagance was shown even in the less elaborate neck wear, and in 1633 the bills for the King's lace and linen amounted to ^'15,000 for the year. As there was little of this money paid for foreign lace, it may be inferred that the making of English laces had become an important industry. Much bone lace and point lace was made in England, besides that of the more costly gold and silver thread.
Henrietta Maria gave lace as a present to her sister-in-law, Anne of Austria, and the Countess of Leicester ordered lace to be sent to her in France, "fine bone lace of English make"; this would be the beautiful Point d'Angleterre, which is erroneously supposed to have originated in Belgium, and to have been chiefly made there. The fact that shoe rosettes were worn in England at this time with the same extravagance as at the French court inspired the epigram —
"Wear a farm in shoe-strings edged with gold, And spangled garters worth a copyhold."
The fall of Charles I. and the rule of the Puritans had less disastrous effect on the lace trade than one would expect. It is true that less cheap bone lace was required for the middle classes, and the bravery and junketings of the lower classes were sternly repressed, but the ladies of the noble and aristocratic families had little liking for the simple Roundhead dress. Silver lace ornamented the buff coats of the men ; falling collars of Flanders lace and English point laces half-hid the armour worn beneath. Nor did the foreign ambassadors of the Puritan govern- ment think it necessary to appear in less ornate garments or less costly stuffs. Even the members of Cromwell's own family used costly lace to a considerable Cromweirs extent, and on the death of the Protector his body was more richly draped with family used velvet, ermine, and Flanders lace than had any monarch's been before in England. '^°^ ^ It is likely that the simplicity so much talked of at this period was more a party cry and a concession to the spirit of reaction, than a practical rule carried out to the letter.
At the Restoration the wearing of lace resumed the old place in the affections of the people, from which it had never really been ousted ; and while fresh proclamations were issued by Charles II. against the entry of foreign lace, he himself continued to buy Flanders lace, and, as Pepys tells in his delightfully gossiping diary, other people did likewise. " My wife and I to my Lord's lodging, where she and I stayed, walking in Whitehall gardens, and in the Privy garden saw the finest smocks and linen petticoats of Lady Castlemaine's, laced with rich lace at the bottom, that ever I saw, and it did me good to look at them."
The change of fashion in men's hairdressing brought about the extinction of the falling lace collar, for the flowing wig and long curls hid the back and shoulder portions of the lace. This accounts for the introduction of the lace cravat of this Lace cravats period. Aprons, pinners and handkerchiefs of lace were immensely popular with succeeded the ladies. With the end of the century the fashion of the head-dress a la Fontange, collars.
■■■
34 HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
called a commode in England, was at its height, and never had such sums been spent on lace in England as were disbursed during the reign of William and Mary. The industry throve in Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Devonshire and all the other lace-making districts in England. Defoe, a few years later, wrote that •' Thro' the whole south part of Bedfordshire the people are taken up with the manufacture of bone lace, in which they are wonderfully exercised and improved
George Dig-by, Earl of Bristol (1612-1677). The deep turn-down collar characteristic of the Stewart period was soon to be replaced by lace cravats, when, the hair being worn longer and more over the shoulders, elaborate ornament was needed only in front.
within these few years past." Devonshire was kept busy with the demand for her Point d'Angleterre laces, and at Honiton the three celebrated lace-makers of the seventeenth century flourished, namely : James Rodge, Mrs. Minifie, the daughter of the Vicar of Buckrell, near Honiton, and Humphrey of Honiton, whose records of bequests to the townspeople are preserved on a board at the west end of the parish church at the present day.
In the seventeenth century we know that the lace industry of England flourished, and some traces may be found of small centres having existed before
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
35
that time, but English portraits are searched in vain for traces of characteristic native-made laces earlier than about 1603, nor is there any mention of the existence of either a bobbin or a needle-point factory.
It is probable that, during the reign of Elizabeth, the close intercourse between the Courts of France and England gave ample opportunity for the exchange of ideas and models in what was then a favourite pastime, and a proof of the knowledge in England of some of the well-known lace patterns is shown in the book published in
"The Foolisli Virgins," by Abraham Bosse. The flat lace collars are characteristic of the period. This is one of the first pictures in which lace-trimmed handkerchiefs appear.
1605 by Mr. Mignerak, an Englishman, which contains a collection of well-known Point Coupe and bobbin lace patterns. This proves also that there were at any rate some people in England who were interested in the English lace industry.
It is likely that until the second half of the seventeenth century England produced only sufficient lace for her own consumption, for it is not until that time that the characteristic Point d'Angleterre appears in wardrobe lists, periodical y^^ lovely literature, and portraits on the Continent ; but after 1650 the superiority and Point originality of the English lace is proved by the large export abroad. This, how- at^e'^rs "'^ ever, is due to England alone having adapted to the bobbin lace the use of the style created in needle-point by the Venetian artists, and we agree with M. Seguin that the deeply-rooted idea that Point d'Angleterre originated in Belgium is erroneous
As early as 1612 a letter, dated January 2nd, is addressed to M. de Morangis, Prefect of Alen9on, in which it is said : " As the young ladies are now clever in
D 2
36
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
making the Point de France, the manufacturers could easily introduce in their factories the work of Flanders and Point d'Angleterre ; and if it is necessary to have some skilled workwomen from other countries, we could authorise them to be called." The Point d'Angleterre undoubtedly means, in this case, the work done in England. The English Point d'Angleterre was exported in large quantities to France, and was never confounded at that time with lace made in Flanders. Colbert, for whose information the letter was written, would be the last to confuse the two makes of lace.
In 1675, Savory,
in " Le Parfait Nego- ciant," declares that " there is a large im- portation from Eng- land of laces of silk and linen thread."
Why should Bel- d'Angleterre gium invent a type of En|land%s" l^ce and call it Point its name d'Angleterre ? This
especial kind of lace existed long before the
Point
denotes.
excessive demand for it in the time of Charles II. necessitated Bel- gian lace being smug- gled into England under that name. It is probable, however, that the faxt that in the latter part of the seventeenth century the demand did exceed the English supply, has given rise to the belief that Belgian so- called Point d'Angle- terre was the model for the English-made Point d'Angleterre, instead of the reverse being the case. And this History of Lace will not have been written in vain if we make it clear that England was the first to make the beautiful lace called Point d'Angleterre. The industry still exists in Devonshire, where Honiton point absolutely represents the Point 'd Angleterre of the seventeenth century ; the only difference being in the poverty of the present designs. If artistic direction were given to the designing management, there is no reason why Point d'Angleterre should not again attain to its old beauty,
George Savile, Marquis of Halifax (1633-1695). He wears the folded cravat of Flemish laoe, which replaced the deep lace collar when flowing- wigs came in — hiding the lace trimming at the back.
Portrait of Mademoiselle de Beaujolas. From the picture by Nattier (1685—1766), at the Mus£e at Versailles. Taken from a photograph by Neurdein. The lace apron and dress trimming are of Point d'Argentan.
Busts of Louis XVI. of France (in Point d'Alenpon Lace cravat) and his wife Marie Antoinette, dang'liter of Maria Theresa of Austria (in Point d'Alenfon corsage drapery).
CHAPTER IV.
ANECDOTAL HISTORY OF LACE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
HiCtUre Ot trie l irnes. The eighteenth century teas a time of great naval activity for England. NeUon and Howe flourished. The American War took place in 17 83. Fox and Pitt guided the poiicy of the Kingdom, and the South Sea Bubble taking place in the first half of the century, gave rise to reckless expenditure. In France the war of Spanish Succession drained the resources of the country early in the century. The Seven Years' War took place and the Jesuits were expelled. The splendour and extravagance of the Court of Louis XVI. suffered total eclipse at the Revolution, which had disastrous results on the lace-making industry ; in fact, at this time, it received a blow from which it has never recovered, notwithstanding Napoleon's efforts to revive the art. Literature a^id Science were represented in Great Britain by Pope, Thomson', Cowper, Burns, Grey, Steele, Addison, Congreve, Defoe, Sterne, Goldsmith, Johnson, Newton, Wesley, Franklin, and Blackstone. In France, by Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, Le Sage, Montesquieu, Buffon, La Voisier, and La Grange. In Italy, by Goldoni, Alfieri, Muratori, Morgagne, Cassini, Galvani, and Volta. In Germany, by Zimmermann, Goethe. Schiller, Kant, and Hoffmann. This was the century when the great German musicians flourished, Handel, Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, and Weber. In Art, Hogarth, Sir Joshua Reynolds and Gains- borough showed the grace of English women draped in muslin, rather than lace. Greuze and Vemet painted French portraits, and in Italy Lutti and Battoni upheld the traditions of the Italian School.
AT the end of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century, every kind of fine lace was used in France — Point d'Angleterre, originally made in England but imitated in Flanders and also in France, being as popular as Argentan and Alen9on ; Mechlin being prized for its lightness ; and blonde lace having recently appeared from Spain.
38
HISTORY OF HAND -MADE LACE.
Chantilly lace was first made with flax thread.
It was at this time that the making of silk laces increased considerably. Black silk guipure had been worn, more or less under protest, out of compliment to Louis XIV. 's Spanish consort, for the graceful taste of the Parisian did not find pleasure in black silk lace. In the middle of the eighteenth century the Chantilly industry was begun, at first with thread, afterwards with silk laces. This trade did not really flourish, however, until blonde laces became the rage in Paris. ■* During the time of the third Napoleon
blonde lace was the favourite wear of the Empress Eugenie, who delighted in its transparent brilliance, and did not see the lack of artistic design.
The equipage de bain formed one of the most important items in the toilette accessories of the woman of fashion. In the eighteenth century the finest Point de France was used not only for the trim- ming of the loose dressing gown of madame, but also for a broad flounce which was set on round the bath ; the towels and stout linen for stepping out upon were all trimmed with costly point. In Madame Dubarry's accounts, Point d'Argentan and Point d'Angleterre ap- pear for such trimming.
The bed trimmings were also of the most costly nature. It must be re- membered that at this time the reveille, or uprising, was a favourite time for the reception of friends, and the counterpane, lace-trimmed pillow cases, sheets and curtains were utilised as a means of displaying costly points — a coverlet made of Point de Venise in one piece, worth many hundreds of crowns, being no un- common sight. The bed garnitures of the Queen of France were renewed every year, Madame de Luignes receiving the old ones as her perquisite. Henry Swinburne, writing from Paris in 1786, says that the expense of a bride's trousseau is equal to a handsome portion in England. "Five thousand pounds' worth of lace, linen, etc., is a common thing among them."
In one of the pictures of M. de Bonnard at the Bibliotheque Nationale, a dressing-room is shown furnished with a sumptuous display of laces. The toilet table has a cover trimmed with a flounce of needle-point ; a Venetian mirror has a pair of guipure lace curtains draped on either side of it. The
Mantilla worn by a lady of Madrid. This head - covering- is still much used in Spain, though it is no longer the uni- versal headwear of every class as it was in the eighteenth century.
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 39
dressing-gown of the lady is all of guipure, trimmed at the sides, where it opens over a petticoat ; rich Point de France edges the sleeves and at the bottom of the gown is a wide flounce of Point de France. At the back of the washing-stand a deep flounce of the same lace is draped, forming a back- ground for the carafes and basins.
George Washington, President of the United States (1732 — 1799). He wears the lace cravat and sleeve ruffles of the period.
The eighteenth century was the age of ruffles and jabots ; fortunes were Fortunes spent on them, and many are the jokes in the literature of the day at the ^'yff^g" expense of those who had lace ruffles but no shirts. The lace was always and jabots, separate and was stitched on. It is said that the falling ruffles of lace
40 HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
worn over the hands by every man of fashion were first used by card sharpers and the throwers of dice, who wished to manipulate the games, and found the full lace flounce a convenient veil.
Jabots and falls of lace for the wrist were the usual present from the betrothed to her fiance, and the sums spent on single specimens in point or Valenciennes would surprise those who speak of the extravagance of the present day. The number required by the dandies of the period appears enormous; the Archbishop of Cambrai possessed forty-eight pairs of ruffles of Mechlin, Point de France, and Valenciennes ; this latter lace was usually worn at night. The year before he died, Louis XVI. had fifty-nine pairs of new lace ruffles, twenty-eight of point, twenty-one of Valenciennes, and ten of Point d'Angleterre. Fine lace The fashion in lace-wearing was not confined to the nobility : the lacqueys
frills formed in the eighteenth century had rich lace ruffles as part of their livery, both in the men- England and all over the Continent. Queen Anne had her servants regularly servants' inspected that it might be seen if their ruffles were clean and their periwigs
livery. dressed; and in a contemporary journal it is stated that "roast beef is banished
downstairs because the powdered footmen will not touch it for fear of daubing their lace ruffles." At the beginning of the century, the English Parliament passed an Act for preventing the importation of foreign bone lace, needle-point, and cut- work, imposing a duty of 20s. per yard. The Government of Flanders retaliated by prohibiting the importation of English woollen goods ; this caused such distress amongst the wool carders, dyers, and weavers that the prohibition of foreign lace was removed, and more of it was worn than ever, the lace bill of Queen Mary of England amounting to nearly ;^2, 000, and that of her royal spouse to ^'2,459, in the same year.
At this time the English laces were becoming more elaborate and costly. Defoe writes of Bland ford point costing £2,0 per yard. This lace was much used for trimming the steinkirks, which form of cravat, originating in France, was extremely popular in England for many years. The lace-making area of this country was very much wider in extent in the eighteenth century than it is now; it extended throughout Cambridgeshire, Northamptonshire, Hertfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, Oxfordshire, Wiltshire, Somerset, Hampshire, Dorset, Devon, and as far as Launceston in Cornwall. Point lace was worked at this time by the upper classes all over England : they learnt the art in France, where so many girls amongst the upper middle classes were educated in the eighteenth century. This lace was generally worked by the wearer for her own use and was never an article of commercial value. In 1775 an institution was founded by Queen Charlotte in London " for employing the female infants of the poor in the blonde and black silk lace making and thread laces." This appears to have been successful for a time, having been bolstered up by the purchase by subscribers in London of the produce of the school.
Queen Anne was scarcely patriotic in her tastes, wearing Flanders point at her coronation. The laces of Brussels and Mechlin were always her favourites, over one thousand pounds being paid in one year for the furnishing of these
■eK4K«R9??;<??<x9)
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
41
laces alone. She, however, did not desire the importation of lace made in the dominions of the French king, and in 171 1 forbade the entry of gold and silver lace on account of the extravagance to which its wear gave rise, even the corsets of the ladies at this time being trimmed with the forbidden fabric. Spanish point in gold or silver was preferred for state occasions for dress and mantle trimming, thread lace being always used for " heads " and lappets.
Joseph Marie Terray. From a picture by Roslin. The magnificent lace alb worn by this prelate is of Point de Plandre.
Before the South Sea Bubble burst, two companies had been brought out with enormous capital for importing lace from Holland, and when the china craze of the eighteenth century was at the height of its popularity, many a Flanders "head" and flounce was exchanged for a punch bowl or nodding mandarin.
When George I. came to the throne lace continued to be worn as much as ever ; the ruffles were longer and the cravats of exaggerated length. " Weeping ruffles " are responsible for the passing of many a clandestine note between lovers and
Enormous capital was supplied for importing lace at the time of the South Sea Bubble.
42
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Spanish mantillas were finest in the i8th century.
Jacobites, and the discussion of the prices of foreign lace and criticism of ruffles seems to have taken the place of the modern substitute — the weather — in the conversation of intimates.
The extent to which the men and women ran up lace bills was enormous. The distress of lace sellers at this time, which should have been so prosperous for them, was very great, and constant bankruptcies of " lace men " are recorded. In the Connoisseur, a journal of the period, the reckless extravagance of the women is commented upon, and a little incident described. " The lady played till all her ready money was gone ; staked her cap and lost it, afterwards her handkerchief. He then staked both cap and handkerchief against her tucker, which to his pique she gained."
With regard to the laces of Italy at this period, the Venetian Point was still being made in considerable quantities ; its style had never been lovelier, for though the workmanship was lighter, it was not less ornate. The demand for thinner laces had altered the designs of Point de Venise, which was approaching the seme method, small sprigs taking the place of arabesques.
Argentan lace was made at Burano, and at the latter place the characteristic Burano Point was at its finest ; it is to this period that some of the most beautiful specimens of this graceful and lovely needle-point lace belong. Its tint is always a deep coffee colour on account of the human contact ; for so laborious is its making that a long time must be spent by the worker in achieving the rows of finest stitching, and accomplishing the effective net ground by hand.
The making of bobbin lace was already a thriving industry in Pelestrina, another of the group of islands of which Venice is one, and at Chioggia also considerable quantities of lace were being made in the eighteenth century. This lace is made with bobbins, and resembles Mechlin lace to a certain extent ; the execution, however, is coarser, with the result that Chioggia lace is much stronger than the Belgian variety. The Italian designs are infinitely more artistic.
The eighteenth century was the best period for lace made especially in the form of mantillas. Neither before nor since has the national Spanish head-dress been so universally worn as at that time ; peasant women, the upper and lower middle classes, the aristocracy and royalty all used lace for their head-covering on every occasion, the quality of the fabric varying with the rank and means of the wearer, though sometimes mantillas of extremely rich lace were possessed by those whose poverty with regard to the necessities of life showed the contrast in a striking manner. Black lace was the most generally worn, but white mantillas were sometimes de rigueur, and are still for special court ceremonies.
The three deep flounces of black lace stitched on the coloured skirt gave ample opportunity for the fabrication of handsome Point d'Espagne, this being also a part of the Spanish national dress much more worn in the eighteenth century than at the present day ; in fact, the dress now worn in a few remote villages is a survival of what was then the rule, both with men and with women, even the three-cornered hat, which was then in vogue with all classes, being still occasionally to be seen. The sleeves of the women's dresses were trimmed with Point d'Espagne.
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
43
In Belgium, Point de Gaze and Application both of needle-point and bobbin- made sprigs, were much made. A new development of this latter variety of lace was just beginning ; this was the Duchesse lace, in which handsome bobbin-made sprigs are made separately, being joined afterwards by means of bobbin-made brides or bars. The Italian lace which most resembles Point Duchesse is the Mosaic lace of the present day, but smaller sections and sprigs serve to build up
the pattern, which is sometimes enriched with medallions of needle-point.
There was much etiquette with regard to the wearing of lace in the reign of George II. ; it was so general at court that even young girls before mar- riage wore lace caps and ruffles. There were winter and sum- mer laces : Argentan and Alen9on were amongst the former ; Mechlin, Lille and Blonde the favourites for sum- mer wear. With regard to mourning, black and white laces were worn for slight mourning, but none was per- missible when deep mourning was worn. Brussels lace was almost invariably the kind worn at court and on state occasions. Fine escaloped Brussels laced "heads" with lappets, hooked up with dia- diamond buttons, were the mode, the sleeve ruffles to match, of double and treble rows, and it was remarked that " the Popish nun lace- makers abroad are maintained by the Protestant lace-wearers of England."' Patriotism was shown in a marked degree in 1736, when at the marriage of Frederick, Prince of Wales, all the lace worn was of English tnanufacture except that of the Duke of Marl- borough, who wore Point
There were
winter
and summer
laces.
Harlequin's Dress, richly trimmed with gold lace and galloon ; eighteenth century. Taken from a photograph of the original dress in the Correo Museum, Venice.
44
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
The lace
apron
disappears.
d'Espagne. Soon after, the Anti-Gallican Society was founded to correct the taste for foreign manufactures and to distribute prizes for bone point lace and other English-made fabrics. This society did excellent work in fostering the artistic beauty of English lace, and its prizes were frequently competed for by gentlewomen, who could carry out designs and stitches of a quality and fineness equal to the convent-made lace abroad, as their living did not entirely depend on the quick execution of their work.
With the end of the eighteenth century in England the lace apron, popular since the time of Queen Elizabeth, finally disappeared, together with the mob cap pinned under the chin; and though costly point was still worn, blonde lace had made its
Border of Bobbin-made Trolly Lace, 2 inches wide. Late eighteenth century.
appearance, and with its novel, light effect, charmed the ladies who were ever on the look-out " for what new whim adorns the ruffle."
All the efforts of George III. to protect English manufactures did but encourage the smugglers ; notwithstanding royal edicts ladies would have foreign laces, and if others could not smuggle them, they themselves were always ready to run some risk and invent some ingenious plan for evading the Customs House officers, who were not only busy at the seaports at this time, but frequently raided the tailors' and milliners' shops in London, their finds being publicly burnt.
But with the terrible years of 1792 and 1793 all this was to cease. The great lace-wearers of France, the nobility and aristocracy, by the end of the century had either been sent to the scaffold or were miserable refugees in foreign countries, eking out a living by giving lessons in languages and dancing, or by selling their costly laces, if they had been so fortunate as to bring them in their hurried flight.
Efforts were made after the Revolution (but without much success) to resuscitate the lace industry of Argentan, that beautiful lace resembling Alen90n, but differing from it, with its characteristic bride picotee ground, the six-sided buttonhole bar fringed with a row of delicate pearls or picots round each side. Permission to establish a factory at Argentan was refused to Madame Malbiche de Boislannay; possibly it was thought that the three existing factories were sufficient to supply the small demand.
1
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 45
With Marie Antoinette fell the lace trade of France, and for a decade the manu- facture, except of a few cheap peasant laces, ceased to exist. When in the 19th century the gradual recovery from the disastrous effects of the Revolution began to be felt at least a dozen of once thriving centres were hopelessly moribund through the death and dispersion of the workers.
Old Chantilly Lace (reduced), from one of the order-books of the time of Louis XVI.
Machine-made Net. Run and Embroidered in Flax Thread. Belgian, early nineteenth century.
CHAPTER V.
ANECDOTAL HISTORY OF LACE IN THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY.
Picture of the Times. The Legislative Union of hx'lami ivith Great Britain in iSoi secured connncreiai /privileges Jor tlie former country on tJw Continent. Early in the eenturv the peace of Luneville it<as signed^ hv luhich the Frencli became masters of all Europe H'est of the Tihine and South of the Adige. " Trafalgar was fought, but the allies could not withstand Napoleon^s generalship, and Austerlitz proved disastrous for Austria. The Peninsular War took place and every industry suffered from lack of encouragement, for all the nations of Europe seemed involved in devastation and bloodshed ; and though England preserved her commerce in consequence of her superior navy, the National Debt was augmented to the enormous sum of eight hundred and si.xly< millions. Great strides zvere made in machinery and agriculture and the invention of the bobbin net in i8og had disastrous effects on the hand-made Ince industry. In iS^y the Jacguard system was applied to the bobbin net ninchinc. English machines were smifggled over to the Continent, and Calais and Brussels became the great centres of the trade. Machine lace ivas first made in 1S3S, a black silk net called " Dentellc de Cambrai" being the first kind brought out.
Colonial enterprise opened new markets. The zcar with the United States took place ; Jefferson teas President in iSoi ,• Louisiana was purchased in 1S03 ; Florida ivas acquired, and in 189S America declared war with Spain on account of the latter power s misgovernmcnt at Manilla. For France the Peace of Amiens was signed in 1802. and after Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo, his e.vilc and death took place. In 1S70. the disastrous Franco-Prussian war paralysed her commerce and lost Iter the fair provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. In 1871 a Republic was again the form of government, and there is now no brilliant French Court to encourage the lace ar,d other industries. Italy s unrest culminated in the declaration of the constitution of Italy ; Rome was made the capital. The most brilliant Italian names of the eenturv are those of Garibaldi, Pius IX.. Cavoitr. Denina, and in art Monti and Canova. Art in England ivas upheld by such men as Sir Thomas Lawrence. Turner. Wilkie, Chantrey, Lord Leighton^ Millais ana a host of other celebrated men. In France by David. Bouguereau, Millet, Rosa Bonheur, Sc, <3t. Madame de Stacl delighted zvith her writings. In England Literature and Science boasted such men as Shelley, Scott, Byron, Southey, Lord Tennyson, Jenner, Herschel and many others.
Napoleon tried to revive the lace industry in France.
FTER the French revolution, when the Etats Generaux prescribed
the respective costumes of the three estates, a lace cravat was decreed
for the noblesse. When Napoleon had time to turn his attention
to such matters, he did all he could to revive the lace industry in
France, with a view to enriching the workers and encouraging the
luxury and brilliance of his court ; more especially he directed his
energy in favour of the Alen9on industry, which was almost extinct, and, on his
marriage with Marie Louise, ordered lace bed furniture including curtains, valances,
coverlet and pillow-cases of the finest Alencou a bride, the Napoleonic cypher,
A
Portrait of Queen Victoria, in Florence veil and corsage trimming of Applique Lace. From a photograph by Alex. Bassano taken at the time of Her Majesty's Jubilee, 1887.
I
NINETEENTH CENTURY. 47
the bee, appearing in the pattern. The layette of his httle son was also rich in Point d'Alen9on, which, with Brussels and Chantilly, was the favourite lace of Napoleon. He made the wearing of lace at his court obligatory, and delighted in the taste and industry of the people who could produce such fairy-like fabric.
As a consequence, a brilliant flicker of prosperity in the lace trade marked the beginning of the nineteenth century in France, but the heavily made old points were neglected, and the graceful Renaissance designs, rose points of Venice Spain and Milan, in double and triple relief, looking like carved ivory in richness, were no longer worn.
The dotted style of pattern with a modest border, drawn muslin, embroidered Indian work, and Blonde laces with their thin grounds were the favourites, and entirely supplanted for personal wear the old needle-point fabrics. Madame Recamier, like all dainty dressers, was a great wearer and buyer of lace, and her bed curtains of finest Brussels lace bordered with garlands of honeysuckle and lined with pale satin, her counterpane of the same, and pillows of embroidered cambric edged with Valenciennes, were extremely delicate.
Embroidered muslin was worn to an enormous extent, and shared with lace the popular favour. Lists of trousseaux and inventories of the period constantly mention Indian muslin dresses, which were even worn at court, and doubtless appealed to the popular taste for affected simplicity as a reaction after the extravagance and luxury of the pre-revolution days.
All the elegantes of the Incroyable period wore muslin embroidered fichus Bobbin net
and scarves, and the lace trade, which had revived to a certain extent, received was first
made, another blow when bobbin net was first made in France, in 1818. At this date
the history of "old lace" ceases: the usually accepted definition of the term
includes all laces up to the invention of machine-made net, the lace made
after that being " modern." For nearly a quarter of a century the lace trade
was much depressed, for Fashion delighted in the lightness of the net and tulles,
now made by machinery, which had succeeded bobbin net. The prices of both
pillow and needle-point laces were lowered, and had it not been for the opening
up of North America as an outlet for the sale of lace a very severe crisis would
have taken place.
The introduction of machine-made thread net, which had so disastrous an effect on the thread lace trade, gave a great impetus to the silk lace varieties. Never before had the Blonde, Chantilly and Bayeux laces been so popular ; the brilliancy and beauty of the silk ground were at once recognised as distinctive features which rendered impossible any confusion of the silk mesh with machine- made net, and the silk lace trade enjoyed a popularity that was soon to cease when silk net lace by machinery was produced.
The tendency since that time has always been towards cheapness in order in 1833 to compete with machine-made goods. About 1833 cotton thread was first cotton thread substituted for flax, with disastrous results to the artistic merit of the lace, but instead of it afforded increased facility for the makers, who found the cotton cheaper, flax, witli more elastic, easier to work and less liable to break. results""^
After the first novelty of the bobbin net and tulle craze had worn off, a slight reaction in favour of old lace set in both in England and on the Continent ; and
48
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
After
Waterloo a lace factory at Brussels was turned into a private hospital.
at Almack's, the Assembly Rooms at Bath and Tunbridge Wells, the chaperons would gossip of their lappets of Alen9on or Brussels. Numerous were the anecdotes as to how this treasure or that had turned up, having escaped the doom of the rag-bag, which, alas! was the fate of so much old lace during the muslin and net period.
The Duchess of Gloucester was one of the few whose affections never swerved from her love of the old rich points towards blondes and muslins, and her collection was one of the finest in Europe. Lady Blessington, too, loved costly lace, and, at her death, left several huge chests full of it. Gradually lace began to be worn again, but it was as it were ignorantly put on, worn simply because it was again the fashion to wear lace, and lace must therefore be worn ; the knowledge of its history, worth, and beauty was lacking, and for a time the mocking of the connoisseurs was justified. It was the Count of Syracuse who said, " The English ladies buy a scrap of lace as a souvenir of every town they pass through, till they reach Naples, then sew it on their dresses and make one grande toilette."
Then the Parisian dress- makers came to the rescue ; Madame Camille, a celebrated costumier, saw the possibilities of the situation, and was the first to bring old lace into fashion again. Laces were cleaned, cut and adapted to modern fashion, and within the last fifty years the taste for good lace has again become almost general, both in England and in France.
An interesting incident, connected with Brussels lace, took place after the battle of Waterloo. Monsieur Trovaux, a manufacturer at Brussels, turned his factory into a hospital for English soldiers, providing nurses, beds, linen and all other necessaries for the wounded men. This humanity checked for the time his lucrative business, but the good man was not a loser in the end, as he received a decoration and his shop was afterwards always crowded with English
Napoleon I. (1769—1821), by Stefano Totanelli. From Seidlitz' Historical Portraits. He wears a cravat of Venetian Point.
NINETEENTH CENTURY.
49
ladies, who would buy nowhere else the lace they desired to purchase in Brussels.
In touching upon the conditions of the lace industries during the latter half of the nineteenth century it will be convenient to classify them according to their place of origin.
Ill Italy new lace industries have grown up in the present century. Embroidered net both black and white has been well received ; much of this work is done in the prisons. Handsome scarves and veils are made as well as lace flounces and godets ; the design is effected by darning with coarse, loosely- woven silk thread upon a machine-made silk or cotton net. Bold patterns are used and the effect is easily obtained and meets the demand for a showy and inexpensive lace-like fabric.
The '■ lace " a la Reine Margherite is very different, though, like the prison laces of black and white, it is simply embroidered net ; it is on very fine machine-
Point d'Alenijon. The ground powdered with bees, the Napoleonic cypher. This lace was made for the Empress Marie Louise about 1810. Depth 14in. from the edge to the central point.
made foundation and the embroidery rather aims at light radiating and star-like patterns than a,t thick masses of work. This lace is much used for ruffles, jabots, handkerchief edgings and other useful purposes.
In Como and in the villages round the lake, much lace is made by the cottagers at the present day. It is the bobbin variety, a kind of guipure, and is usually sold under the general title of Italian lace ; it resembles the torchon kinds, the most usual form of peasant-made lace all over Europe. The laces usually identified with Venice and Burano, Chioggia and Pelestrina are also made in the district of Como.
In France little lace is now made except in the Le Puy district, the earliest established of all the French lace centres, which has the largest proportion of the trade of the nineteenth century in Europe. The production is principally
E
^
5°
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
t
heavy bobbin-made lace, which is used chiefly for furniture, curtains, etc. Other kinds, notably black laces, are still made, but their artistic value is not great, and the Chantilly, torchon, and Valenciennes of other countries are equal in quality and exceed in quantity that now made in France.
The lace workwomen of Le Puy are scattered all along the Haute Loire and in the Puy de Dome, which form the province. They number about 100,000
Lonise Adelaide of Orleans. From the picture by Decrenze at the Musee at Versailles. Photographed by Meudein. Mechlin lace trims the muslin fichu, this was much used at the time (early 19th century) its lightness making it specially suitable.
and are employed upon the production of blondes and guipures, in linen, silk, and wool threads. The lace now made is finer and better than the old laces of the same district. In 1875 the average wage of the workwomen was fifty centimes a day. Skilful workers and those who were quick in learning any novelty which was at the moment in demand could gain as much as three francs a day. The galloons called entoilages are no longer made in the district.
NINETEENTH CENTURY.
51
At Argentan, where such famous laces were made in the seventeenth century, there is now no important factory. At Arras, where laces were made which rivalled those of Lille, there are only a few hundred workers, the number having dwindled since the 30,000 lace-makers of the eighteenth century were busy with their bobbins.
In Spain needle laces are no longer made ; the old industry in imitation of
Point de Venise has entirely died out. Bobbin laces only are executed and the designs are usually in execrable taste. In Portugal the lace of the nineteenth century rivals that of Spain in poverty of design, and is inferior to it in execution. The largest quantity is made at Peniche, in Estremadura.
In Madeira there are now comparatively few lace- workers, the industry of the island being chiefly directed towards embroidery.
The laces of Germany are not important. Saxony has never produced any original lace, but her trade in the last century was considerable ; the lace is inferior now, and is largely exported to America, possi- bly for the use of the many Germans who have settled there, and who perhaps still retain a taste for German products : otherwise it is impossible to explain a preference which seems un- justifiable.
In Austria the old lace factories at Laybach and Illering ceased to exist with the eighteenth century.
In Switzerland a good deal of lace is still made, but the designs shown at the Paris Exhibition in 1851 were greatly wanting in originality ; these came from Locle Connet and Chaux de Fonds and were chiefly of the blonde and torchon varieties.
Swedish lace finds purchasers only in its native country ; this is also the case with the Russian fabrics, which are most original in design and workmanship,
E 2
Bridal Dress of 1830. The veil is of Belgian bobbin sprigs mounted on machine-made net ; the flounces are of old Brussels.
1^
52
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Machine- made net had a depressing influence on the Honiton lace industry.
and it is much to be regretted that steps are not taken to encourage the industry on a large scale. In all probability very valuable results would be obtained in a country where the native lace is so fine and of such a distinct type (though somewhat barbaric) and where an important home industry would be valuable in ameliorating the condition of the peasant population.
Irish lace, fostered and encouraged to a certain extent in the eighteenth century, was recognised as an article of commerce in the nineteenth. The manufacture of Limerick lace was established in 1829; this so-called lace work is strictly embroidery or network ; the tambour stitch is sometimes worked upon Nottingham net. Crochet and other Irish laces are all imitations of the older foreign fabrics.
One of the few new kinds of hand-made lace invented during the nineteenth century is the Poly- chromo lace made at Venice. This is a very beautiful fabric made with bobbins of many coloured silks ; sometimes as many as 300 to 400 are employed upon one seven-inch flounce, the delicate shading of the colours being obtained by the enormous number of tints used. The designs are taken from old Venetian and Raphaelesque point, and the lace is used either for furniture or for personal wear.
Another lace originated in the nineteenth century is that called Petit Motif. It is a bobbin lace of most attractive design, the quality and pattern being always the same. To France must be conceded the honour of its creation ; it is now made in Venice and in Flanders.
A new departure in Honiton lace-making was first introduced in Devonshire in 1874, though it had been known in Belgium before that time. The characteristic of this variety, which is called Devonia lace, consists in the raised petals, butterfly wings, or other forms which occur in the design ; these are worked separately and stand out in relief.
Early in the nineteenth century royal favour was sought for the lace-workers in Devonshire, who had been much distressed by the introduction of machine-made net, and Queen Adelaide gave an order for a complete dress to be made of Honiton sprigs ; these were mounted on machine-made ground, so that both industries were benefited, for it was realized that the struggle between manual labour and invention could only have one result, and it would be useless to attempt to bolster up a dying industry such as that of the hand-made net. The design for the royal order was
Jenny Lind, from an engraving by William Holl, showing early Victorian tippet of black Chan- tilly lace.
NINETEENTH CENTURY.
53
to be copied from nature, for during the depression in the Honiton trade the patterns used had gradually degenerated. The skirt of this his- torical dress was encircled by a wreath of flowers whose initial letters formed the name of the Queen : Amaranth, Daphne, Eglantine, Lilac, Auricula, Ivy, Dahlia, Eglantine.
Queen Adelaide was always ready to lend her aid in mending the for- tunes of the industrial classes. In 1826 the reduction of the duty on French tulle caused so much distress in Nottingham in consequence of the ladies wearing the cheaper foreign make, that Her Majesty appeared at one of her balls in a dress of English silk net, and requested her ladies to wear only English tulle at Court.
Thirty years ago it was stated that 8,000 people were employed in making Honiton lace ; this number
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Lady Elizabeth Craven, from the " Court Album," 1857, showing sleeve trimming of Applique lace, characteristic of the middle of the nineteenth century.
The Countess of Malmesbury, from the "Court Album, ' ' 1856. Her collar is of Devonshire guipure.
has smce greatly lessened. Only the thin common sorts are made ; few designs are executed which demand close labour, and the so-called Honi- ton lace of the present day can no longer be considered a fine lace. Only old women who learnt the art in their youth work at it, so that it is quickly dying out. Sprigs and borders, which are worked separately, are collected from the cottage makers by agents, and are paid for at a rate which works out in some cases at three farthings or one penny an hour, in consequence of which children and young girls are no longer taught, or if they learn give up a trade at which they can earn but four or five shillings a week for more lucrative employment such as dressmaking or millinery, at which they can at least earn a shilling a day. There are, happily, a few isolated exceptions to this depressing state of affairs.
54
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Why is not hand'Hiade lace made an enormous industry in England?
With artistic direction English lace need no longer hold a fifth-rate place.
Mrs. Fowler, of Honiton, still has a small lace school where only the iinest work is done and the old stitches and vrai reseau are taught ; Miss Herbert, of Exeter, also encourages the old traditions ; and Miss Audrey Trevelyan has introduced with some success graceful Italian and French designs at Beer and Seaton.
The English application lace of to-day is, as a rule, less successful than that of Brussels, for the machine-made net ground upon which the hand-made flowers are applied is thicker, inferiority and less delicacy in the appearance of the lace being the results ; nevertheless the work is excellently done and has the great advantage of coming from the workers' hands perfectly wdiite in colour.
It is strange that in our country, where the classes are so much interested in the welfare and well-being of the masses, and where protest is continually being made against the growing tendency of women to leave their homes and seek work outside the home circle, the industry of lace-making has never been taken up by some w^ealthy enthusiast who could place the industry upon a solid artistic and business basis, without which industrial enterprise can never flourish.
In those efforts which have hitherto been made, one or other essential founda- tion has apparently been lacking ; and though it is charming to watch the eff"orts of ladies to encourage dainty work, or to see industry in any form, it is also depressing to think that want of the old methods, want of artistic direction in the designing and management, or want of business co-operation with the great lace merchants of the world (who after all hold the balance of success in their hands, because they are the great medium for disposing of the product to the general public, and to a large extent for creating a taste in the public for the fabric), has hitherto prevented real success and permanence in the efforts to restore the old industry in Great Britain,
The English point lace of the seventeenth century was one of the most beautiful and artistic products which the world has ever seen : the Point d'Angleterre in those days was imitated in Belgium, so great was the demand for the costly fabric. It was constantl)'^ sent to Paris even when the Alen9on fabrics were in the height of their popularity, and enormous fortunes were made by lace merchants. Departure from the old designs caused the decline of the industry, which is clearly seen in the degraded artistic methods of the present industrj^ in Devonshire. Given a sound commercial basis and capable direction, there would soon be a revival of the beautiful old methods now that renewed interest is taken in fine laces.
Not even the stitches would have to be learnt by the w'orkers, for they already know them : it would only be necessary to furnish such designs as would double the value of the product. The labour and material now expended upon the production of lace worth only ten shillings per yard, would, if graceful and saleable designs were worked, produce a fabric worth fifteen shillings or a guinea a yard. In fact, to restore the artistic direction would be to restore the great lace industry of England, and raise it from the fifth-rate position which it now holds to the splendid position attained by the lovely Point d'Angleterre of the seventeenth century. The Honiton lace of to-day is but the exquisite Point d'Angleterre of the Restoration period in a debased condition.
NINETEENTH CENTURY.
55
Briefly, the advantages of the lace industry for England are these :
1. Women need not leave their homes in order to do the work.
2. In a properly organised lace school the girls are well cared for and protected while learning the industry.
3. Perfect hygienic conditions and personal cleanliness are essential for the lace-maker.
4. There is plenty of scope for individual effort and distinction, a stimulating consideration, which puts the lace-worker on a superior footing to the woman who merely works a machine.
5. The work is so light that the most delicate woman or girl can undertake it.
6. Mastery of the technical details is so easy that in lace-making countries, such as Belgium and Italy, children of seven or eight years commence to learn the " stitches."
7. Every woman newly employed in lace-making is one taken from the great army of women who, in earning their living, encroach upon those trades and professions which have hitherto been looked upon as the monopoly of men.
Miss Emily Yelverton, from the "Court Album," 1854. The bell-shaped lace sleeves of the period and bodice trimming are of Rose point lace.
CHAPTER VI.
ECCLESIASTICAL LACE.
Gold, silver, and flax thread laces of fabulous value.
l9:?-J
|N writing of lace used for Church purposes there is no separate history to relate. It is simply the story of the finest specinnens of every make of lace which the skill of the artist could design and the patient work of the lace-maker could execute, enriched beyond the richest lace for personal adornment by modes and stitches put in gratuitously, as it were, because of the love and devotion in the heart of the worker. It is for this reason, because Church lace was generally made at convents where time was no object, and where only the beauty of the fabric was studied and enrich- ment devised because nothing could be too beautiful for the service of God, that ecclesiastical lace is so fine.
Amongst the treasures in the cathedrals abroad, there are laces of gold and silver, flax thread laces, too, of fabulous value ; the dresses of the Saints and Madonnas were profusely decorated with the richest and most costly of whatever was the fashion of the day. It is unfortunate that though the Inventory of the treasures of N6tre Dame de Loreto fills a thick volume, and the figure of the Saint was freshly clothed every day, so magnificent are the plate, jewels, and brocades, that no mention is made of the laces, which are probably on the same gorgeous scale.
At Notre Dame at Paris at the present day three specimens of lace of the seventeenth century are amongst the most costly and beautiful of all the tresors kept in the strong room of the sacristy. Each one shows the special kind of lace in its most ornate and lovely form. An alb of priceless Argentan is in Renaissance design ; the fillings are so fine and intricate that it is impossible, without a microscope, to appreciate their beauty, while the ground is of brides ornees in the famous six-sided honeycomb boucle with infinite number of pearls forming a rich ground for the pattern. The deep flounce of Point d'Angleterre which trims the second alb is also of the finest workmanship, the old flax thread still of admirable colour ; and the remarkable preservation of the Flemish lace which decorates, or rather forms, the third alb shows with what care such costly vestments were always treated. Such garments were worn only by the celebrant of High Mass on some great festival.
r'LEMENS :
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Portrait of Pope Clement XIII. Rezzonicus (1693=1769). The identical Point de Burano lace he wears is now in the possession of Queen Margherita of Italy, who lent it for reproduction to the Burano lace factory to assist the recent efforts to revive the lace industry on the island. Dentelle Rezzonicus is now a variety of lace well known to connoisseurs.
ECCLESIASTICAL LACE.
57
Amongst the stores of gold -embroidered chasubles, gem-studded crosses, mitres and cups, where masses of diamonds sparkle on historic reliquaries, and pearls, emeralds, and rubies enrich even the cups and platters used in the service of the Church, the exquisite grace and delicacy of the lace appear all the more pronounced, and this miracle of patient industry, built up from the simplest material, a little thread, rivals in startling beauty objects which are made with the costliest and most precious materials the world can produce.
The lace of the Vatican is constantly mentioned in describing the ceremonials The vest- of the Church, and it may not be out of place to refer to the chief vestments used ^^^^^^^^^^/ in the Church of Rome at the present day, and in England before the Reformation ; ^ith lace, these are the cassock, the amice, the alb, the girdle, the maniple, the stole, the chasuble, the dalmatic, the tunic, the veil, the cope and the surplice. Of these, the dalmatic, the surplice and the alb, are the vestments chiefly ornamented with lace. The dalmatic is a long robe open on each side, resembling a chasuble, but with wide sleeves. Its origin is extremely ancient. St. Isidore declares its name to be derived from Dalmatia, where it was' first used. It is ornamented with two strips
Border of Bobbin-made Lace, from the yoke of a dressed Ecclesiastical statuette. The design consists of symbolical figures placed upon a net ground or "resean." Flemish, eighteenth century.
like the Roman dresses of the same period ; these strips, originally of purple or scarlet, are now usually of rich lace or gold embroidery.
At the Cathedral at Burano, the lace sets for the use of the Church are mag- nificent, the old Burano point frontals especially being of extraordinary beauty ; the solidity of this lace renders it possible that antique specimens should be in a perfect state of preservation, for the firm and frequent knotting of the flax threadg makes it in some rare instances almost as stiff as cardboard. We have seen pieces which resembled thin card in stiffness, though it will be remembered that Burano point, both ancient and modern, has the arabesque design upon a mesh net ground, the tint being generally of a rich coffee colour.
Vine leaves and wheat ears are the most usual themes for the designers to work from, and very beautiful are some of the variations of these natural objects.
Some of the most interesting and beautiful lace ever made at Burano was The lace executed for Pope Clement XIII. Rezzonico ; this was in the form of a chasuble Rezzoni and flounce. It is now in the possession of Queen Margherita of Italy, who graciously lent it to the Royal School at Burano for the purpose of copying,
nico.
58
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Bridal lace for the Church.
knowing^ that the old design and stitches would be faithfully carried out, for the old spirit of artistic execution and beauty of feeling in the work still survives at Burano, where work equal to any done in the hey-day of fine lace work of the seventeenth century is going on at the present day.
Comparatively little lace is now made in convents ; more perhaps in Belgium than elsewhere, but little in comparison with the amount which was once executed.
Aprons which are worn by Roman Catholic bishops when performing ceremonies, have always been made of the costliest lace. In the eighteenth century, in a description of the washing of feet by the Pope, such an apron, of old point lace with a broad border of Mechlin, is mentioned. Unfortunately the laces of the Holy Conclave are often sold at the death of a cardinal by his heirs ; some- times the newly elected cardinal purchases most of the stock, as the high ecclesiastical dignitaries of the Church of Rome are obliged to possess com- plete sets of great value.
The lace of the Rohan family, hereditary Princes, Archbishops of Strasburg, which has never been dis- persed, but has been steadily acquired through successive generations, is of fabulous value ; on some of the albs the arms and device of the family, worked in medallions, are introduced in the design.
Guipure lace was much used for the adornment of the altar hangings, the richness of the gold and silver thread being most effective. In the seventeenth century, in the inventory of the Oratoire in Paris, the veils for the Host are mentioned, one of white taffetas, trimmed with Guipure, another of white brocaded satin with lace Guipure.
Lace is frequently bequeathed to the Church or given during the life- time of some fair devoue. In the eighteenth century, when Barbara, sister of the King of Portugal, was married, the bride of seventeen solemnly offered to the Virgin at the Church of Madre de Dios the jewels and dress of splendid point lace in which she had just been married. In modern days the Empress of the French presented to his Holiness the Pope for conversion into a rochet, the most costly dress which has ever been executed at Alen9on. This dress was exhibited in 1859, and was bought by the Emperor for 200,000 francs. The ground was of the vrai resean, or needle-point mesh, now so seldom seen.
Square or "Pale" for Covering the Paten, of Needle-point Lace "ar^seau" ; with a Thread instead of the usual Buttonhole-stitched "Cordonnet." In the centre is the Sacred Monogram surrounded by rays of glory and by the instruments of the Passion, the dice, the coat, the crown of thorns, the cock, the ladder, hammer, and pincers, &c. Point d'Alenfon, French, eighteenth century. 5i inches by 5i inches.
ECCLESIASTICAL LACE.
59
One of the finest specimens of lace made at Valenciennes was the trimming of an alb made in the seventeenth century and presented to the Convent of the Visitation on its foundation in 1603. This lace was more than three-quarters of a yard wide, the thread extremely fine, and the value of the work can be estimated when we understand that it used to take a worker ten months, working fifteen hours a day, to finish a pair of men's ruffles. Valenciennes lace is made altogether on the pillow, with bobbins ; one kind of thread is used for both pattern and ground. The city-made lace known as Vrai Valenciennes is most highly prized, Batarde or Fausse Valenciennes being the name for the fabric made outside the town. Not only the finest web of Valenciennes, but also the coarse, but artistic,
fabric called Fil de Carnasiere, or Italian knotted lace, was used for the service of the Church in the early days of lace- making. Punto a Groppo was in vogue both in Spain and in Italy, the strongholds of the Roman Catholic Church, for ecclesiastical linen and Church vestments, from mediaeval times up to the end of the seventeenth century, and was sometimes made with the loose ends hanging as in the modern knotted lace or macrame; sometimes with ends knotted into a scalloped design and cut off. In the painting by Paul Veronese, of Simon the Canaanite, now in the Louvre, this lace adorns the table cloth. In writing of lace made for the use -j'jjg gelf- of the Church, it must not be forgotten sacrificing that many a splendid piece has been worked i^j[es° by ladies who desired to show their devotion in some way more self-sacrificing than by pay- ing others to do the work of their offering, or who could not afford to make a rich present and must devote time and labour if they wished their gift to be a valuable one. Though the work of the nuns is very beautiful and shows much devotion and disregard of trouble where increased richness of effect is possible, yet some of the work of ladies' hands presented to the Church equals it ; in some instances it has been the patient work of half a lifetime, and one imagines the thoughts of piety and devotion that were worked in with stitches visible still as miracles of patience.
In " Church Embroidery : Ancient and Modern," we are told that in the churchwardens' accounts of St. Mary-at-Hill, London, in i486, mention is made of " a frontill for the schelffe, standing on the altar, of blue sarsanet with brydds of golde."
Pontiff in Alb richly trimmed with Point d'Arg-entan.
60
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
The Norman English Church perpetuated the Anglo-Saxon use of movable altar frontals, a practice which was continued up to the time of the Reformation, at which epoch every parochial church was furnished with complete sets of frontals and hangings for the altars.
With the destruction of the stone altars at the Reformation and their replacement by the "decent table" provided at the cost of the parish, standing on a frame as commanded by Elizabeth in 1565, most of the beautiful lace and embroidered apparels disappeared from the church — alas ! frequently to be cut up as coverings for the chairs and beds of the professors of the new faith.
The bands placed vertically on an altar cloth, a reredos, an ecclesiastical vestment or hang- ings are all called orphreys ; these are generally of the richest needle- work, sometimes of gold lace or cloth of gold, embroidery, flax thread lace, velvet, silk or satin trimmed with gold lace. Such bands vary in width, but are always an important feature in the decoration of the frontal band or clavi that adorns the priest's alb. The same decoration used to border the robes of knights was also called an orphrey. The name is supposed to be derived from Atiyiphrygium, the Roman name for work in gold and silver thread.
Some of the finest lace ever executed has been made for use in the Jewish Church. The talith.
In Jewish ceremonials a lace- trimmed cloth or talith a cloth used in some of the Hebrew
is used.
Pope Clement XIV. in an Alb trimmed with fine Needle-point Lace. Eighteenth century.
ceremonials, is often richly orna- mented with lace; two long borders are of lace about eight inches wide, four square pieces ornament the centre, and there is a border of lace round the long scarf-like cloth. We
have seen Point Neige, the most delicate needle-point in double and triple relief, worked in ecru silk thread for the ornamentation of a talith.
Hollie or Holy Point was originally made entirely for Church use, and the name was used in the Middle Ages for any sort of Church lace work, whether drawn or cut work, darned netting or needle-point lace, when the pattern was formed of some subject from Scripture history or contained sacred emblems. Italy, Spain, Flanders, and England all produced Hollie Points, the favourite figures for
ECCLESIASTICAL LACE.
6i
illustration being Adam and Eve, the Tree of Knowledge, the Holy Dove and Annunciation Lily, with occasionally accompanying figures. After the Refor- mation, when the hoards of laces belonging to the Church were scattered, Hollie points were frequently used for lay purposes and religious sub- jects were specially worked for personal adornment by the Puritans ; the name Hollie Point is now used for a kind of darned net-work or crochet. This has frequently been em- ployed to ornament christen- ing suits, which were once much used, the child wearing for the ceremony in church a special cap ; mittens of lace were also provided for the christening suit, together with bearing cloth richly trimmed with Hollie Point, and occa- sionally dress or shirt trimming.
Choristers in Lace-trimmed Surplices such as are worn at the Vatican.
It was the custom for the sponsors to give a set of christening laces consisting of richly-trimmed front, mittens, cap and cuft edgings. It has been sug- gested that this presentation of ornamented linen at the baptism is a relic of the pre- sentation of white clothes to the neophytes when received into the Christian Church.
In a painting by Wat- teau, at Versailles, the Grand Dauphin is repre- sented with his father, Louis XIV. ; the child is covered with a mantle or bearing cloth edged with a deep flounce of the richest Point de France. It was the cus- tom for the Papal Nuncio to present to the new-born Dauphin Holy linen, a kind of layette which had been blessed by the Pope. This was quite distinct from a christening suit, for the
Pope Pius VII.. from a picture by Giuseppe Bazzoli. The sleeve trimming of the alb is of fine Point d'Angleterre.
62 HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
shirts, handkerchiefs, and other necessaries, all trimmed elaborately with lace, were in half-dozens. This custom is of very early origin.
In all parts of Italy, and in Venice especially, a lace-trimmed cushion is used
for the child to lie upon when brought to be baptised, and on other occasions of
ceremony. When the parents are wealthy the costUest points are used for this
purpose, and children of the present day may be seen lying in a bower of finest
lace cambric with dainty ribbon bows.
Costly lace Another use which lace has been put to from remote ages is in the dressing
for the cloth- of the dead. The first forms of lace work, before the evolution of actual lace,
dead. were freely used by the ancients for winding-sheets and cere cloths. We allude
to cut-work combined with embroidery.
Besides the mummy wrappings of the ancient Egyptians, many of which are ornamented with drawn thread work and other early forms of lace, other countries have used the lace as a decoration for grave clothes. In the Ionian Islands quantities of funeral lace have been found amongst the tombs ; not many years ago the natives used to rifle these places of interment and take the booty for sale to the towns. So profitable was the trade that a coarse lace was made, steeped in coffee and blackened, that it might look as if it had once adorned the dead body of a long buried Ionian.
At Monreale, near Palermo, the mumaiies in some of the catacombs of the Capucini Convent are tricked out with lace. They are a gruesome spectacle, for there are between five and six thousand of them hanging by their necks.
In the whole of the North of Europe lace-trimmed habits were used for clothing the dead, and in Denmark there is a tomb which contains a body clothed in priceless Point d'Angleterre and Mechlin lace. Mummies in Danish churches are frequently decked out with costly laces of the period in which they lived.
In Spain it was the right of the nobility to be clad in the dress they wore in life rather than the habit of some religious order, and much lace was consequently used when the fashion for wearing cravats and ruffles prevailed.
When, to encourage the woollen manufactures, an Act was passed that the dead should be buried in woollen shifts, a woman in London at once applied to the King, in 1678, for the sole privilege of making woollen laces for the decent burial of the dead. Amy Potter was this ingenious inventor, who desired to profit by the lugubrious occasion. Her advertisement appears in the London Gazette for August 12th, 1678: —
" Whereas decent and fashionable laces, shifts, and dressings for the dead, made of woollen, have been presented to His Majesty by Amy Potter, widow (the first that put the making of such things in practice), and His Majesty well liking the same hath, upon her humble petition, been graciously pleased to give her leave to insert this advertisement, that it may be known she now wholly applies herself in making both lace and plain of all sorts, at reasonable prices, and lives in Crane Court, in the Old Change, near St. Paul's Churchyard."
The effigies of monarchs and celebrated persons displayed for public view have always been decked with lace; it will be remembered that the wax-works preserved at Westminster Abbey are so decorated.
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'HE earliest known fan-leat entirely of lace Earliest fans, was made in Flanders in the early half of the seventeenth century, for the Duke of Brabant. Before that time lace-trimmed fans only were used, the leaf itself being of silk taffeta or parchment upon which the lace was gummed or sewn ; these are frequently to be seen in contemporary pictures. In the history of fans pictorial representation has to be much relied upon, for from their frequent use — and they formerly had much harder wear, if old records are to be believed, than they have at the present day — fans of earlier date than the eighteenth century are rarely to be met with. Doubtless old broken sticks, ragged fan leaves, and faded tassels which would now have been veritable treasures were swept away as rubbish, as each successive fashion demanded a new mode.
As in the art of lace-making, so with regard to the invention of the fan, several different countries claim to be the first. India, China and Japan all have legends which claim to have reference to the poetic or accidental discovery of the use and charm of this important weapon in female coquetry.
The fan, together with a parasol and fiy-ilap, is frequently mentioned in ancient The fan Sanscrit poems, and was one of the Royal attributes of the gods and demi-gods of ^^^^ ^^ ^ the Hindoo heaven. Others seem to have been the fore-runners of the graceful attribute.
I
64
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Screen- shaped fans edged ■with Point d'Espagne were used in the i6th and 17th centuries.
A special kind of fan used only by married women.
Portrait of Queen Elizabetli. in lace-trimmed coif, ruff, and cuffs. She holds in her hand a fan — the only present a subject was in those days permitted to give to the Sovereign.
folding lace leaves of a later date. Pheasant feathers were used in China for Royal fans as early as two thousand years before Christ.
Feathers compose the fan with which that famous fashion leader, Queen Elizabeth, is represented in one of her portraits ; this is, as far as we know, the earliest English representation of a fan in English portraiture. The Chinese folding fan, said to have been suggested by the folded wings of a bat, was not introduced into Europe until the end of the sixteenth century, and the ladies of Milan, Florence, Venice, and Padua, which were then the fashion leading cities of the world, all wore feather fans, such as is shown in Elizabeth's portrait, with or without a tiny mirror in the centre.
In Italy, Carpaccio painted many fans in detail in the sixteenth century, and from his pictures we find that the famous Point d'Espagne gold and silver lace was much used as edging to the screen-shaped fans of the period. The fan itself was usually of silk brocade, stretched upon a frame, the lace enrichment, in the form of a straight-edged insertion resembling that we now call galloon, being used in strips and bands across the brocade as well as at the edges.
It is this type of lace-trimmed fan which is shown in the well-known painting of " Titian's Daughter-in-law," in the Dresden gallery. It is a curious fact, reminding one that there was much etiquette at this time in fan-wearing and fan-using, and that such a lace-trimmed fan was worn only by married women. The
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LACE FANS.
65
only known specimen still in existence is in a private collection in France. The lace on this rare curio is the Venetian Point of the sixteenth century ; it forms an edging to a cut open-work piece of parchment stretched upon a frame and supported by a thick stick which forms the handle.
In the time of Henry VIII. in England, long-handled fans for out- door use were employed by both men and women. " The gentlemen had prodigious fans, and they had handles at least half a yard long ; with these their daughters were often-times corrected." Fans were used by the judges on circuit, possibly to stir the hot, close air of the court. More than one engraving by Abraham Bosse shows a fan
Portrait of a Lady, with lace-trimmed folding f an._ She wears the lace-trimmed tabs of the bodice and corsag-e trimming of lace charac- teristic of the period. By W. Hollar, 1639.
Portrait of a Woman, by Eembrandt, 1640.
wielded by a man. This famous depictor of the manners and modes of the seven- teenth century shows us many folding fans trimmed with lace. Narrow bands of insertion occur at the upper edge of the mount and occasionally at intervals across the lower part.
The parchment lace, as it was called Parchment in England when silk, gold or silver ^^f "^^"^ thread was twisted over the thin strips of trimming, cartisane or card board which formed the main lines of the design, greatly enhanced the value of the sixteenth and seventeenth century fans ; and the prices sometimes paid for them appear somewhat extrava- gant, considering the difference in value of money in those days ; the sticks of such fans, however, were not infrequently studded with precious stones. 1,200 crowns was given for a fan presented by
66
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Fan-leaf of Needle-point Lace, made at the Presentation Convent, Youghal, Co. Cork.
Nineteenth century.
Queen Elizabeth to Queen Louise of Lorraine; one of Queen Elizabeth's fans was valued at ;^4oo. It was this Queen who decreed that a fan was the only present which a subject could give to the sovereign, and we believe that the old law still holds good. In reading the general history of each fine variety of lace, a knowledge is gained of fan-lace history, for it has no separate story with regard to its construction.
The designs in lace fans have always varied according to the prevailing fashion of the day since the seventeenth century, when lace was first used for the purpose of making whole lace fans. Renaissance arabesques and richness of workmanship distinguished the early eighteenth century specimens, and the firm yet delicate laces such as Rosaline Point and Burano laces of the period were especially suitable for the purpose, which demanded lightness combined with strength.
When medallions appeared in furniture, wall decoration, and the designs for brocades, they were adopted by lace fan designers with enthusiasm. To Boucher and Watteau many painted fans have been attributed, perhaps more specimens than ever left the masters' studios ; be this as it may, painted fans are seldom signed. The graceful medallion mode was specially successful when applied to lace designing, and it is still largely used in the Duchesse lace, which frequently shows medallions of exquisitely fine work ; delicate sprays of needle-point are worked on to the vrai reseau or fine needle-point net ground, such medallions showing up with excellent effect amongst the bobbin-made sprays of the main fabric.
English Point d'Angleterre also shows frequent examples of the medallion period in the designs, open work fillings being frequently used to lighten large closely sewn surfaces. This style is well seen in the fan belonging to the Empress Eugenie.
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Lace of Fan-leaf ItaKan design, made at Seaton, South Devon, imder the direction of Miss Audrey Trevelyan. Late nineteenth century.
Lace has occasionally been used in conjunction with painting in fan-decoration ; a gauze medallion being laid into a frame-work of lace, and the plain fabric painted with a cupid, a garland of flowers, or some other graceful design after the Boucher method.
Applique laces of various descriptions have been much used for fan-leaves. A transient fancy demanded white or cream modes on blaclc machine-made net or chiffon ; the effect was certainly light and graceful, but lovers of the fine hand- made lace would doubtless prefer so dainty a toy as a fan to be entirely composed of hand work. The graceful effect of the old brides ornees, characteristic of the now extinct Argentan factory, are none too delicate for the groundwork of a fan, nor is the laborous hand-made net of Burano over-fine for the leaf which is to waft soft zephyrs to Beauty's" cheek.
Modern hand-made lace leaves are frequently mounted on antique sticks with excellent effect, for the evolution of the artistic fan stick had reached a point in the reign of Louis XV. which has never since been equalled. Wood, ivory, gold, silver, tortoiseshell and lacquer were used, besides precious stones, pearls and hand- carved metals ; no time or expense was spared in their enrichment. The fragile leaf of the period, which was generally of carefully prepared vellum called chicken skin (a somewhat misleading name, as it is not the skin of chicken), has generally perished long before the more substantial sticks, so that with a fine modern lace fan leaf the antique supports are, as it were, given a new lease of life.
Enormous quantities of fans were made in the eighteenth century, for the beauties of that period were never without a fan indoors or out, winter or summer ;
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A lace frame w^ith gauze medallions.
Antique sticks used with modern lace leaves.
■■
68
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
and the present restricted use of the fan in England to the gentler sex, and, generally speaking, to the social hours in the evening, is of comparatively recent date. In countries such as Japan, the fan is not an article of luxury but one of daily domestic use ; not only does the peasant woman fan herself as she goes about her household tasks, but the peasant labourer carries his fan in one hand while he wields his hoe with the other, and the shopkeeper fans himself as he serves his customers. But with such fans of general utility we have nothing to do, for lace fans have always been articles of luxury. There are no peasant laces used for such a purpose : only the finest and best of hand-made lace is usually selected as suitable for the fan-leaf.
Lace Fan-Leaf in white net ground and black silk pattern, worked at the School of Art, Cork.
Nineteenth century.
CHAPTER VIII.
PEASANT LACES.
,HE study of the peasant laces ot Europe forms a most interesting contradiction to the old saying that " Fashion wears out more than women do," for in the lace caps, fichus and aprons of the agri- cultural classes there is evidence of the most intense conservatism, which in many cases enables us to see exactly what was worn by women and girls of the same district hundreds of years ago.
Lace has, since the sixteenth century, formed an essential part of the costume of the Normandy peasants ; the bourgoin, the most elaborate of the peasant caps, being frequently handed down from generation to generation. It is formed of a stiff buckram shape covered with starched muslin, which is frequently embroidered ; this part of the head-dress is a 'relic of the ancient horns or cornettes of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries ; at the apex of the erection is pleated muslin or cambric, edged with rich [lace; long lappets of the same flow behind, far below the waist of the wearer. The lace used was at one time the bone or bobbin lace made in the district. Later, -women pride as the designs and methods improved, so the lace ornamenting the caps of themselves the peasants became richer, for a woman prided herself on the fineness of her ° "^^ ^f ^^^^^^ lappets, and time was not thought to be ill-spent in fabricating the many yards lace lappets.
70
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
The native village of the wearer is shown by the shape of her cap.
which would show the skill and worldly prosperity of the family, in which the lace would be an heirloom for many generations. The peasant lace of Normandy was finest in the eighteenth century, when from Arras to St. Malo more than thirty centres of manufacture were established, and the peasant women of the whole district were engaged in the industry.
Dentelle de la Vierge is the pattern most used by the peasants in the trimming of their caps. It is made with rather an elaborate ground on the pillow, with bobbins ; it has a double ground, while a simple seme pattern takes the place of a more intricate design. The edge is straight, and the width usually varies from 2g to 7 inches.
The laces of Havre were declared by Corneille in 1707 to be " tres recherche," and in an inventory of the household effects of Colbert, Points du Havre appear as trimmings on his bed-linen. In Normandy there are almost as many different shaped caps and different modes of wearing the peasant laces as there are villages ; for though their elaboration is gradually modified (and within the last half-century the changes have been more than in the two centuries before), yet still the shapes of the caps are most quaint and effec- tive, and each villager is proud to show the district of her birth by the shape of her cap. The fan-like, lace-trimmed halo of the Boulogne fisher-girl is familiar to many, and the peasant of Walmegnier wears similar headgear. The Bretagne caps are, as a rule, profusely trimmed with lace, while in some of the districts are still to be seen the frilled skirts turned over the heads and shoulders of the wearer, like those worn at Chioggia. The effect is quaint and not altogether graceful, though there is something fascinating about the full flounce, or sometimes fringed edge of the skirt, as it droops over the face. As can be imagined, this custom gives ample opportunity for the
wearing of pretty petticoats, and the coquettish peasant-girls are not slow to avail themselves of the occasion for the display of pink, blue or crimson under-skirts. The peasant woman of the lie de France wears a lace-trimmed fichu besides the flat close-fitting cap with enormous cambric lappets looped up at the ears.
Huge, too, are the lace and cambric ear-pieces to the caps of the peasant-girls of Wallen (Val d'Hereno), Switzerland. A flat, saucer-like straw hat is worn on the top of the head, so that it is only underneath the hat, close to the sides of the head, that there is any chance of displaying elaboration in the cap. The rest of the dress of the Wallen peasant consists of a short, coloured skirt, and a zouave jacket with sleeves. This opens to show a white muslin chemisette which is occasionally embroidered in white ; there is also a large and full white apron reaching nearly to the bottom of the dress.
Cap of a Domestic Servant at Caen, in the eighteenth century.
wa^Jaeasggggg^v'.■^^v■>^^^'MWA.^JJ^J■^g^J^.^a^kH^i
PEASANT LACES. 71
The dress of the men at the same place reminds one of the ordinary garments of the well-to-do citizen of the eighteenth century, with the three-cornered felt hat, long waistcoat embroidered in coloured silks, and full-skirted coat.
Most of the caps in Southeyu France, together with those of Germany and Austria, are formed of printed cotton, velvet, or silk kerchief; while embroidery of an elaborate description of brightest coloured silks takes the place of the dainty muslin lace and embroidered cambric with which we chiefly have to do.
In Germany the hair is displayed to great advantage, and long plaits, fre- quently reaching far below the waist, form a very pretty feature in the peasant's costume. These plaits are sometimes tied at the ends with bright multi-coloured ribbons, the most garish and brilliant tints being mingled so that the flowers in the pattern of the ribbon should appear.
Eouen Children in Lace-trimnied Caps.
In Switzerland also the young unmarried women wear their hair plaited. The but not coiled round the head in most districts. At the Apenzell (St. Gallen) the arrdngemcnt costume is most elaborate ; the short skirt of printed cotton in bright colours is indicates the very full ; the apron of different patterns, but also coloured, is tied on wuth bright married or ribbons ; the stockings are of black or dark brown ; the shoes, without heels, ^'"^ ^ ^^^*^* resembling the Italian pianellas, are white, with white heels. The chemisette is of white, with elbow sleeves, and the cap black wired net, or lace, which stands out from the head like a halo. The dark bodice is laced across the chemisette with coloured ribbons.
Kerchiefs are the head-coverings of the Bulgarian peasant, who twists the simple bright-tinted square most deftly, so that it becomes a well-fitting and becoming cap. The rest of the Bulgarian dress consists of a very narrow striped skirt, the effect of the horizontal lines of colovtr in the material still further
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
In Holland the lace caps arc -worn over metal plates.
Lace-trimmed Cap of the Peasants in the neigh- bourhood of Coutances, France.
emphasising its want of width. A zouave in scarlet or black, with loose elbow sleeves, opens over a white chemisette.
In Portugal the peasants also use kerchiefs on their heads, wearing a broad-brimmed straw hat over for shade. Their skirts are very wide, but not accordian pleated ; the feet often bare. Sometimes white muslin or lace takes the place of the head- kerchief.
In Spain the skirts are also short, and often flounced with two or three deep volants of rich, black lace. The lace head-covering, or mantilla, is a distinctive feature of the costume, and, though in the eighteenth century it was almost universally worn by high and low, it was sometimes replaced by a kerchief on the head in the case of the very poor. The kerchief flourishes in Denmark, Sweden, and Jutland, where it is sometimes tied in the most pictur- esque— we had almost said grotesque — manner ; while the seAere handicap for even the prettiest face in the unbecoming old beaver " topper " of Ringhjohing and Wales makes us wonder at the eccentricities of personal adornment.
Perhaps the daintiest and most effective of the peasant lace headgear is that of the Dutch woman, not only on account of the fine lace used, but also because of the unique method of showing it off. Surely the inventor of the curious ear-plates of metal, or rather metallic skull caps, had a fine sense of what is quaint and effective, besides a subtle knowledge of the joy in showing one's family wealth in lace and bullion at the same time. Certainly no more picturesque sight is to be seen than a dozen nodding lace-covered " oorijzers " on the heads of the women as they sail lazily down one of the waterways of Holland on their way to the Haarlem, Utrecht, or Delft markets.
The great drawback to this delightful headgear is the ignoring of the fact that women are usually supplied with hair ; no room is there for such head-covering beneath the metal " oorijzer," and doubtless the close-fitting cap is extremely bad for the growth of the hair, for a tiny knob no bigger than a walnut is usually seen at the back beneath the folds of lace.
The other variety of Dutch cap with which most of us are familiar, from the portraits of the young Queen of Holland, who selected this type when photographed in the national costume, is that 'which has large gold or silver bosses on either side of the face, to secure the dainty lace to the head, a little frill of the pillow- made fabric depending from the close-fitting cap and falling over the hair behind.
Ave Maria Lace. A simple bobbin lace much made by the peasants near Dieppe, and used for edging their cambric and lawn cap-strings.
PEASANT LACES. 73
The subject of peasant jewellery is in itself a large and interesting one, which would fill many pages, but one or two fine examples may be mentioned here, for it is impossible to entirely ignore so important an adjunct, which frequently adorns the lace cap, tippet, or apron.
The enormous-headed pin, frequently enriched with secondary gems, such as the Dresden garnets, are seen in wear at Unterwalden. The hair is usually frizzed in front, no cap is worn, and the pin is stuck through the hair, which is dressed low, so that the jewelled ornament shows near the nape of the neck. The sleeves are of white musHn, caught at the elbows with more jewelled filigree work, and silver filigree chains and buttons ornament the front of the bodice. A skirt in parallel bars is worn with an apron with horizontal stripes, and black silk lace mittens, reaching from elbow to wrist only, complete this most elaborate gala costume.
The embroidered net fichu worn by the peasant of Ariege is a very dainty affair ; the whole dress is most elaborate, but with its red cloth skirt, black silk apron, black bodice, and kerchief of white, with red cross-stitch embroidery, over which is worn the embroidered net, the whole finished off with a tiny, red cloth cap, does not include elaborate lace trimming, though one of the most effective surviving.
Very small, too, is the cap worn by the peasants at Berne ; it is of black velvet, and is merely the foundation for a dainty bunch of artificial flowers ; elaborate ribbon strings simulate the fastening-on of this tiny headgear, but in reality hang down behind. A short-waisted bodice with long, tightly-fitting sleeve, is worn with this cap, and an embroidered vest is laced across with coloured ribbons. The skirt is very full and short, the folds being accordian-pleated ; the apron also has many folds. White stockings are worn and black silk garters richly fringed ; embroidered ribbons tie the ends of the long plaits of hair which hang down behind.
At Basle also is worn an accordian-pleated skirt in bright colours with which the full black apron contrasts well ; a white kerchief is folded across the breast, and there are white elbow sleeves. A tiny cap is worn, varying in shape according to whether the wearer is married or unmarried ; on this depends also the wearing of the hair in plaits hanging down or closely coiled about the head.
Black lace is much used on the dress worn by the peasants around Lucerne ; a Black lace is
black flower ornaments the flowered cap, which is small and round ; a coloured worn by the
. . . peasants at
kerchief is worn round the neck, a shot silk or bright-coloured bodice with Lucerne.
embroidered ribbons suspending jewel ornaments. A jewelled girdle is sometimes
worn hanging over the accordian-pleated apron, and the petticoats are very short,
showing red stockings and black high-heeled shoes.
At Como and in the districts of Northern Italy many jewelled pins are worn, stuck into a velvet knob so that they radiate round the head like a halo ; the rest of the dress consists of a short, brightly coloured skirt, generally of crimson or green ; a black or blue apron, lace kerchief, and heelless shoes with red tips, together with white or red stockings.
The graceful dress worn by the peasant women in and near Rome is perhaps better known than any other, through its frequent representation by artists ; the
74
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
folded cloth of white linen, sometimes handsomely fringed or decorated with lace, is a most distinctive feature. Large gold earrings are worn, and a white chemisette with full elbow sleeves is seen under a short sleeveless corslet which is often embroidered with coloured galoon and laced across with coloured ribbon. A long narrow apron of thick material is usually worn with a short, full, coloured skirt. White stockings with pianellas usually complete the toilette of the picturesque Roman girl.
In other parts of Italy the kerchief is worn on the head with graceful efifect.
In Russia the head-gear of the peasant is most distinctive, being made of a high, stiff, funnel-shaped crown of black or coloured material, which is sometimes fur-trimmed. A long coat or pelisse is the outer covering of both men and women
Lace-trimmed Caps worn by the Peasants in the Environs of Rouen.
Elaborate lace-trimmed caps are ■worn in Dalmatia.
in Russia ; and though peasant jewels are worn, and silver coins and charms are seen on the bodices, the necessary wrapping-up and thickness of the materials prevent the picturesque effect which is so strongly marked in the dresses of the peasant inhabitants of less rigorous climates.
The hat worn by the Bourgognes is much trimmed with the bobbin lace made in the district ; it is of velvet, lace surmounting the crown and being laid flat on the brim ; lace lappets depend on either side, and a lace-trimmed cambric cap is worn beneath this elaborate structure.
The Dalmatian cap is also lace-trimmed, though not actually fashioned of lace ; it is of red cloth, in the shape of a small turban ; there is no embroidery on the cloth, but elaborate trimmings of ribbon and lace are used.
PEASANT LACES.
75
The Silesimis huge headgear somewhat resembles that worn by the peasants of DalecarUa, in that the lace is used as a protection against the sun. Over a white cap a close-fitting velvet one is worn, and upon this is fixed the stiffened lace which forms a kind of sun-shade or awning.
Little lace of any importance has ever been made in Sweden, except that which is executed by the peasants for their own use. The thread used is coarse, and the work is done on a pillow with unusually large-sized bobbins. The patterns are those in vogue two centuries ago, and are of the stiff geometrical type. Lace is only worn by married women on the caps and fichus, and is so starched that it stands erect, or can be bent slightly as a protection from the sun. This lace is seldom washed, the starching process only being repeated when more stiffening is required ; the rich coffee tint is considered a great beauty as showing the great age and the durability of the fabric, which latter quality is, in fact, extraordinary.
Besides the lace made by the Dalecarlian women for personal adornment, there is much plaiting of threads done for the ornamentation of their household linen. This resembles the old Genoese Macrame, and the modern fabric of that type ; some- times the ends of the threads are left hanging loose to form a kind of fringe ; some- times they are knotted up and cut off, so that the resemblance to ordinary lace is closer.
Holesom, or cut- work, was much made in Sweden in the cottages of the peasants, but though large quantities were executed, little ever came into the market, as the peasants preferred to have their own handsome stock of house linen rather than the money such labour would fetch.
In Germany much handsome pillow-made lace, cut-work, and drawn thread work is also used by the peasants in ornamenting their household linen. The old Flemish grounds are the favourites for the laces on account of their solidity ; such lace-trimmed linen would be held as heirlooms through successive generations. Since the fine, ground of Lille and Mechlin came in, the lace has been much less durable, and the peasants have, therefore, practically discontinued making it for their own use.
In Greece, little lace is worn on the caps of the peasants, but both gold and silver gimp lace is made for ornamenting the bodices ; this is of twisted threads of cotton covered with the metal, and is usually worn sewn down the seams of the coats and bodices of the men and women. Sometimes this lace is of bright-coloured silk, instead of the gold and silver, and is equally effective.
Bisette lace was a favourite one with the peasants in the neighbourhood of Paris, especially during the seventeenth century ; it was made of coarse and loosely- twisted thread, usually unbleached, and of narrow width ; yards of it were employed in the trimming of the elaborate caps. This thread-made Bisette is quite distinct from the gold and silver lace of the same name, which was sometimes further ornamented with thin plates of metal.
Stilfened lace forms a sun- shade in Silesia.
The house' hold linen of the German peasants ornamented with lace.
CHAPTER IX.
THE TRANSPORT OF LACE.
ORMERLY the lace trade was entirely in the hands of
pedlars, who carried their wares in packs to the principal
.^v^r,..- " towns in Europe, and to the large country houses, where
, , experience had taught them there was a likelihood of ready
(jI^ ^'^^- This lasted until the middle of the seventeenth
Lace sold by '0t'^\ century. Laces were sold by pedlars in England in the time of
pzdlars. ^ _^ Henry VHI. In a play written in 1544, by one John Heywood,
^^^'I ^^^ contents of a pedlar's box are enumerated: ''Laces knotted,
i'^K}>^f/ laces round and flat for women's heads, sleeve laces." In " Fool
'^'/' of Quality," written in 1766, "silk, linen, laces" are found in the
box of a murdered pedlar. The custom of carrying lace round from
house to house still survives in the cheap machine-made varieties
'^(y^M found in the baskets of pedlars of the present day, and in the boot-
''^'^^ laces, stay-laces, braids, and tapes which are also carried; this
branch of the lace trade having more intimate connection with
needle-point and pillow laces in remote times than it has at present,
when the tendency towards specializing is shown in every trade. In the counties
of Buckingham and Bedford, and in some parts of Devonshire, the lace box is
often carried from house to house still, and at the country inns and hotels it
often makes its appearance at the end of a meal ; the waiter carrying round
the wares, or allowing the women, who frequently make as well as sell the lace,
admittance to the room.
This custom is also permitted in some parts of Belgium. At Spa the system of colporteurs, which dates back to remote times in Greek history, still survives, and early travellers in the country make frequent mention of lace purchasing in their diaries. King Christian IX. of Denmark made many purchases of lace while
Portrait of Marie Antoinette (175S-1793) from the picture by Mme. Vigee Lebrun at the IVlusee at Versailles. Photograph by Neurdein. Blonde lace trims the corsage and skirt.
THE TRANSPORT OF LACE.
17
travelling in Schleswig, entries such as the following constantly appearing in his journal from 1609 to 1625 : " Paid to a female lace-worker 28 rixdollars, to a lace-seller for lace for the use of the children." In a letter to his chamberlain he specially mentions a recent purchase, and orders in an autograph letter that out of a piece of Tonder lace four collars of the same size and after the manner of Prince Ulrik's Spanish, must be cut ; and they must contrive also to get two pairs of manchettes out of the same. Alas ! that dressmakers' troubles had already begun at this early date.
In 1 647 there was a great lace-making epoch in Jutland, and the fabric was made by men and women of the upper as well as the lower classes. The lace was entirely sold by "lace postmen," as they were called, who carried their wares throughout Scandinavia and parts of Germany ; this service, as its name implies, was carried on with considerable method and regularity, and was not the casual porterage of independent itinerants, but a business organised by the body of lace- makers it served.
The great lace dealer, Mr. Jens WulfF, Knight of the Danebrog, who did much for the lace industry of Denmark, is thus spoken of in his son's book : " He began the lace trade at the end of the last century, and first went on foot with his wares to Mecklenburg, Prussia and Hanover ; from thence the lace was consigned to all parts of the world. Soon he could afford to buy a horse, and in his old age he calculated he had travelled on horseback more than 75,000 English miles, or thrice round the earth."
In the reign of Elizabeth, in England, lace began to find its way into general shops and stores all over the country, for its purchase was no longer confined to the court and high" nobility to whom it was brought by lace merchants. In the shop list of John Johnston, merchant of Darlington, for instance, mention is made of "loom" lace, black silk lace, and "statute" lace, together with such articles as pepper, books, and sugar candy. Amongst the articles for sale at John Forbeck's shop at Durham there are "velvet lace, coloured silk chagne lace, petticoat lace, Venys gold," and — "terpentine."
At the mercers' shops in large towns lace was to be purchased, but as the itinerant sellers in neighbourhoods where lace-making was carried on were always to be found content with a smaller profit on their wares, many continued to buy from them long after lace was to be had elsewhere. Lace was sold at fairs — this was especially the case when the fabric was the result of work done by the cottagers in their own homes. At the fairs and on market days much selling and bartering of lace was done.
Frequently special orders were given to the lace-makers who carried out the designs required by their patrons. A lady who desired lace would go to a cottage and arrange with the worker for the execution of her order ; this ideal, but necessarily restricted, method was adopted all over England wherever practicable.
In Italy, as a rule, at the present day, the agents of the large firms go to a central point in a lace district at certain times of the year and collect the lace produce of the peasants, it being always understood that the fabric must reach a
** Lace post- men " in Scandinavia.
Lace bartered at fairs.
Agents collect the lace in Italy.
78
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Lace smuggling.
Dogs were used in smuggling.
certain standard of excellence, or it will be rejected. All lace imperfectly made or soiled is rejected by firms whose reputation is an important matter to them. But the inferior laces are, of course, not wasted ; other merchants buy such goods, send them, as a rule, to spas and watering places where people congregate who have more money than discrimination, and a ready sale is found for them. The barter for such goods is generally cotton or linen material for working, orders for polenta and other food stuffs, rather than coin. This system, which gives rise to much cheating, is still flourishing in some remote villages in Devonshire, "truck," or payment in kind, being given to the workers instead of money.
Sometimes the thread is given out by foremen to the workers in a certain district, and an account must be made of the amount received ; thus, if one pound of flax thread be received, half a pound of lace must be handed over, as about half is allowed for waste.
The history of smuggling in connection with lace is a large subject, for the unlawful passing and "running" of lace has always had an intimate connection with the history of lace in any country in which it has been made ; innumerable are the stories of how stringent laws for the protection of the home lace industry have been cleverly evaded.
Perhaps the most systematic smuggling, and that of the most ingenious order, was carried on between France and Belgium in the beginning of the nineteenth century, when France was using much Belgian lace. Dogs were trained to serve the smugglers' purpose. In France the animal was fed well, petted, caressed, and made extremely happy ; then after a time he was taken across the frontier into Belgium, where he was starved and otherwise ill-treated. After a short time of wretchedness, the skin of a larger dog was fitted to his body, the intervening space filled with lace and sewn up, and the dog allowed to escape. He naturally made direct for the old home across the frontier in France where he had been so kindly treated, and was soon relieved of his contraband. The enormous extent of this traffic will be judged by the fact that between 1820 and 1836 many hundreds of such smuggler dogs were destroyed, a reward of three francs for each being given by the French Custom House when they at last got wind of this ingenious device for evading the duties.
In the eighteenth century many people lost their lives in the risky trade of lace smuggling. Though foreign laces were prohibited in England the Court ladies persisted in wearing them, and if they could not succeed in smuggling them themselves, they got others to do so. After 1751 extraordinary severity and surveillance seem to have been resorted to in order to put a stop to the unlawful importation of lace; a writer of this period remarks that "not a female within ten miles of a sea-port that was in possession of a Mechlin lace cap or pinner, but her title to it was examined." Lord Chesterfield writes to his son in 1751, " Bring only two or three of your lace shirts, and the rest plain ones." It was no uncommon thing for the milliners' and tailors' shops to be raided by the Revenue officers ; and on such an occasion whatever articles of foreign manufacture were found were confiscated.
George III. ordered all the dress materials worn on the occasion of the
THE TRANSPORT OF LACE.
79
marriage of his sister, the Princess Augusta, to the Duke of Brunswick, to be of English make. The guests and attendants took not the slightest notice of the King's wishes, but gave their orders freely for prohibited stuffs, which they knew would be forthcoming if the prices paid were high enough. Three days before the wedding the Customs officers visited the court milliners of the day and carried off all the foreign cloths, gold, silver and lace. In the same year, a seizure of contraband French lace, weighing loo lb., "was burnt at Mr. Coxe's, conformably Contraband
to the Act of Parliament." Women were arrested with t^j.^^ pies containing valuable foreign laces ; a Turk's turban containing stuffing worth /"go in lace was seized. The journals of 1764 are full of accounts of seizures by the Customs for contraband transport of lace.
High and low took to smuggling. A gentleman of the Spanish Embassy had thirty-six dozen shirts, with fine Dresden ruffles and jabots, together with much lace for ladies' wear, taken from him. A body Lace was to be conveyed from the Low Countries for interment smuggled in in England was found to have disappeared with the exception of the head, hands, and feet ; the body had been replaced by Flanders lace of immense value. So common was the trick of smuggling in coffins that when forty years later the body of the Duke of Devonshire was brought over for burial, the officers not only opened and searched the coffin, but poked the body with sticks to see that it was not a bundle of lace. It is said that the High Sheriff of Westminster successfully " ran " ^"6,000 worth of French lace in the coffin of Bishop Atterbury, who was arraigned for Jacobite intrigue when Bishop of Rochester, and who died in exile in Paris in 1731.
The spies of the Custom House were everywhere. Mrs. Bury Palliser relates that at a dinner party in Brussels early in this century a lady, the wife of a Member of Parliament for one of the Cinque Ports, told the gentleman sitting next to her that she dreaded the seizure by the Revenue Officers of a very beautiful Brussels veil in her possession. The gentleman at once offered to take charge of it for her "as he was a bachelor, and no one would suspect him." The lady accepted the offer aloud, for she saw one of the waiters listening to the conversation ; she at once guessed he was a spy, and sewing the veil in her husband's waistcoat, succeeded in getting it safely to London. Her partner at dinner, crossing two days later, was subjected to the most rigorous search.
All this proves that the people who desire to wear lace will have it whatever the laws, and however active may be the spies and Revenue Officers ; free trade principles alone can put a stop to smuggling.
One of the Fashion Puppets, 3 feet in height, such as were dressed in Paris and sent to all the capitals of Europe to display the modes of the day. From the Correo Museum, Venice.
8o
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Fashion puppets dressed in lace.
Special pef' mission was given for the entry of fashion dolls to our ports in war time.
In writing about the transport of lace, mention must be made of puppets or dolls which were dressed with lace in order to show the fashions of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The word puppet is derived from poup'ee, a baby or doll. The figure used instead of the modern fashion magazine was usually below life size, made like the puppets or fantoccini used in the plays. In 1721, Le Sage wrote a play for puppets. The well-known puppet show scene in " Don Quixote " will be remembered. The marionettes were constructed of wood and pasteboard, with faces of composition, sometimes of wax. In the puppet for dancing purposes each figure was suspended with threads to a bar held in the hand of a hidden performer, who posed and gave action to the figures with the other hand.
In the eighteenth century, Flockton's show presented no fewer than five thousand figures at work at various trades. At country fairs puppets were used for depicting historical scenes, such as " The Crossing of the Alps by Napoleon '' ; these dolls were sometimes moved by clockwork.
A few years ago, an elaborate model was made of a staircase in the Doge's Palace in Venice ; every detail of architecture and decoration was accurately carried out, the whole being made to scale. On the staircase were no fewer than one hundred figures represented in the correct costume of the time, which included the most elaborate laces, all of the real kinds used at the period. The scene represented was the execution of the Doge Marino Falieri. The executioner was there, the officers in accurately-made uniforms, even the spectators in the costly lace and brocade dresses of the time.
The puppets used for the display of fashions in lace were of the same make and description. The custom of dressing up lay figures in the modes of the moment commenced in Paris, where, in the reign of Louis XIV., one called La Grande Pandore was exhibited in the court dress of the period, or in some fashion conformable with grande teniie. This dress was changed with each change of fashion, just as the life-size puppets in the shop windows of the present day show off the latest creations from Paris and elsewhere. A second doll, smaller in size, called La Petite Pandore, was exhibited at the Hotel Rambouillet clothed in morning deshabille, this word meaning the less ornate garments fashionable for morning and home wear, and by no means indicating the careless and slovenly character of loose dress which the word deshabille has in modern times come to mean.
When a fresh fashion came in, the last poupee was sent off to Vienna, Italy, England and other countries where people were as desirous as now of knowing the latest Paris fashions. So important was the matter considered in England, that when British ports were closed in war time, special permission was given for the entry of the " Grands Courriers de la Mode." These dolls were dressed with the finest laces France and Italy could produce. As late as 1764, it is said "there has been disembarked at Dover a great number of dolls, life-size, dressed in the Paris fashions in order that the ladies of quality can regulate their taste on the models."
The custom dates back much earlier than the reign of Louis XIV. M. Ladouise
THE TRANSPORT OF LACE. 8i
of Paris, in 1391, makes entries for expenses connected with sending a fashion doll to the Queen of England. In 1496, one is sent to the Queen of Spain ; in 1571, a third is sent to the Duchess of Bavaria. In Miss Frier's " Henri IV." we are told the King writes in 1600, before his marriage to Maria de' Medicis : "Frontenac tells me that you desire patterns of our fashion in dress. I send you therefore some model dolls."
It was the custom to expose such puppets for public view at fairs ; in Venice, at the annual fair held in the Piazza of St. Mark on Ascension Day, a doll was always shown whose dress and laces served as a model for the fashions of the year. This was kept later in a shop on the Ponte dei Bareteri, which is to be seen at the present day ; it was called La Poupa di Franza, and was placed in the window so that all might model their garments on the fashions shown by the puppet of the moment.
In his picture of Paris, Mercier mentions the puppet of the Rue Saint Honore. " It is from Paris that the most important inventions in fashion give the law to the universe. The famous doll, that precious puppet, shows the latest modes. One passes from Paris to London every month and goes from there to expand grace to all the Empire. It goes North and South, it penetrates to Constantinople and to St. Petersburg, and the pleat which has been made by a French hand is repeated by every nation who is a humble observer of the taste of the Rue St. Honore."
Bobbin Lace, 5J inches wide, showing transition stage of the Scallops between Pointed and Straight which began to take place in the seventeenth century.
Keep your lace dry and ■warm.
-f^S
CHAPTER X.
THE CARE OF LACE.
INE needle-point and bobbin lace should be kept in a warm, dry atmosphere. Much old lace has been damaged by being locked away in cold, damp sacristies in the cathedrals and churches, where hoards of ecclesiastical lace accumulated in the days when the finest specimens of Spanish point, laboriously-made Valenciennes, Mechlin, Brussels, and Italian laces were all made for Church use. A species of mould attacks lace, especially black lace, if kept without air ; this mould is, in reality, a living parasite, which grows, feeding on damp, as the mould in a damp preserve closet or apple- room will form and grow. If laces are not used they should be taken out of their drawer, shaken, and frequently exposed to air.
Moth does not attack lace made with flax thread, but should be guarded against if specimens of Trina di Lana or Shetland point are to be stored. There is no need for blue, white, pink, or mauve paper, as long as the receptacle in which the lace is kept is dust-proof, and air is frequently allowed access to preserve the colour and kill parasitic growths.
ADAPTING LACE.
More good lace has been ruined by dressmakers than by all the other destructive agencies put together. Madame la Mode has no veneration, and will cause Plastron made of Floral
^ ,, _ . , .^ . . Forms cut from a ragged
the finest Alen9on or Burano pomt to be cut if it suits Flounce and joined with
her whim that a certain form shall be made in lace for ""^^ Needle-made Bars.
An unusually Complete Specimen of the Lace=trimmed Christening: Suits in use until the close of the eighteenth century, consisting of cap, frock trimming in two pieces, collar, and mittens. The lace is Belgian bobbin=made h r^seau,
THE CARE OF LACE.
83
Border of Needle-point Lace (made of three pieces, one narrower and two wider, stitched together). The patterns of the fragments are of the same period, Louis XV., and show how narrow laces can be effectively joined. Width 7 inches.
which the piece was not originally intended. Here should step in the ingenuity required for adapting lace without destroying the fabric. Is the piece too long ? The superfluous part can be placed between the material and the lining. Is it too wide ? The same plan can be resorted to. Corners can be mitred by means of lace stitches, so that no join is visible ; revers made with the surplus width at the lower end hidden, instead of cut.
Adaptation is not necessarily destruction ; sometimes it gives new life to a worn- out and unusually ragged lace. The Devonshire lace -makers recognise this as a regular branch of their industry ; many a beautiful veil, shawl, and flounce is concocted from old fragments sent to them in a seemingly hopeless condition. They begin by carefully cutting out of the torn pieces the designs of the old work. These are spread upon a paper pattern of the shape required. The modes and fancy stitches are restored, any flower which is re- quired is supplied, and the whole is joined together on the pillow. We recently saw a handsome black Honiton flounce being so treated with perfect success ; black Honiton is extremely rare, and is now never made,
G 2
Give ragged lace a new^ lease of life.
Two Dessert D'Oyleys made from fragments of lace cut from ragged borders.
84 HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
Old point lace can be given a new lease of life if the ground has given way ; and
this is always the first part to wear on account of the weight of the solid arabesques
and leaves. These should be detached from the ragged ground, placed on a pattern
of the desired form, then connected with fresh bars worked as nearly like the old
bars as possible.
Many laces which are too narrow to use effectively can be joined so that the
widening is almost imperceptible.
Do not put Fragments of coarse lace can be used in various ways, and merely require neat
your torn stitching and ingenuity in arrangement to make them into graceful articles of utility id.ccs 111 tnc • J 1 r 1
rag-bag. instead of useless rags.
Table-Centre or Tray-Mat, made from fragments of lace. The ground is of wMte linen.
TO RESTORE LACE.
Before mending lace it should be ascertained exactly of what make it is, more especially with regard to the ground, as this is usually the part which first shows signs of wear. If the needle-point or pillow lace design is mounted on machine- made net the lace is easily repaired, and the fabric does not deteriorate in value in the process ; but if the lace has a needle-made ground or one made with bobbins, a large proportion of the value of the lace is lost if the design is remounted on machine-made ground. The needle-made grounds should be repaired to the last ; of these are old Brussels, Burano, Point Gaze, Alen9on, Argentan, MechHn, old Devonshire, Flemish, and Lille. Sometimes lace is made on ihe pillow with bobbins, and filled in with a needle-made ground, or between bobbin sprigs medallions of needle-made point are let in, as in Duchesse ; in such a case the needle-made net ground must be mended and not cut away.
THE CARE OF LACE.
85
To Mend Cut Work.
The holes should be darned, the button-holing or over-sewing of the pattern Special being afterwards done according to the pattern on the darned foundation. If the soe^daP'^"''^^ hole is large it is sometimes worth while to sacrifice a few inches in the length of mending, the piece in order to patch ; this is, of course, an extreme measure, but it is better to have a shorter length intact than the longer unusable, on account of holes.
To Mend Darned Netting.
Cut out the broken meshes and net new ones in their place, unpick the darned design beyond the junction of the new and old mesh, and darn the pattern in again.
To Mend Needle=niade Laces with Bar Grounds.
Restore the ragged parts of the pattern by cutting out the fillings in the centre, and working in new fillings that match the old in design. Button-hole round the cordonnet, cut out the ragged bar ground where necessary, and work new bars in. Simple bars are made by passing two or three strands across the space, and covering them closely with button-hole stitch.
To Mend Needle=made Lace with Machine Net Ground.
Clean the lace, unpick the pattern from the old torn ground, mend the design, putting in the fancy stitches where they are incomplete ; tack the design on blue paper right side downwards. Lay a new piece of net that matches the old as nearly as possible over the sprays and tack it to the edge of the paper ; then with a fine needle and lace thread sew it round each spray, taking up minute portions of the edge and not the centre of the work. Sew round the design on the right side, after untacking from the paper, apearledgeof liny loops. Lay the lace with design upper- most on a board covered with flannel and rub each leaf, spot or flower, and along each spray,
with the end of an ivory crochet hook to make the raised work stand up in relief. Bobbin lace applique is mended with machine-made net in just the same way.
Bobbin Lace before Mending.
86
HISTORY OF HAND-MADE LACE.
To Mend Needle=made Laces with Needle=made Net Grounds.
Mend the fillings by imitating the stitches in the design ; do not cut away any of the ground, but join the fine lace thread at a corner of the hole, as the mesh will not otherwise pull into shape ; fasten the thread, if possible, into the fil de trace or outhne of the design. Insert the needle at about the distance of one-sixteenth of an inch, bring it out as for button-hole, but twist the thread once round it, so as to make a twisted strand ; work to the end of the space, and at the end of the row fasten the thread to the lace with a strong stitch, and sew over and over the threads back to the commencement, putting two twists into each loop.
The
cleansing process.
To Mend Bobbin Laces with Bobbin Grounds.
These f are the most difficult of all laces to restore, as they must be repaired on the pillow. The bobbins are passed into the meshes beyond the rent, and the new work will then resemble the old. In mending bobbin lace great care should be taken to exactly match the old thread, as much damage can be done to delicate fabric by using too strong a thread, which tears away the old pattern.
When mending tape guipure it is often advisable to darn the pattern before restoring the bobbin bars.
To Clean White and Tinted Lace.
Place the lace to be cleaned on a smooth board covered with linen, pin it with small fine pins on to the linen which has previously been firmly nailed down to the board, then dab the lace with warm water by means of a sponge ; the fabric must on no account be rubbed, only dabbed. Dissolve half an ounce of the best primrose soap in two pints of water and dab the lace again with the sponge soaked in soapy water until it is perfectly clean. Rinse the soap away by dabbing with warm clear water and leave the lace to dry after most of the moisture has been removed by means of a dry sponge. Old laces should never be ironed or stiffened.
If the lace is so thick that dabbing with a sponge will not remove the dirt, it may be placed in an enamelled iron saucepan in cold water in which best Primrose soap has been
dissolved in proportion of two ounces of soap to two pints of water boihng point, then remove the lace, rinse in clear water and pin down to a linen covered board.
Bobbin Lace after Mending.
Bring it to
nrmnnniMnim
H
THE CARE OF LACE. 87